THE 


American  Printer: 


^  ganaal  of  l^pograp'^^, 


CONTAINING 


PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  MANAGING  ALL  DEPARTMENTS 
OF  A  PRINTING  OFFICE, 


AS  WELL  AS 


(Complete  Instriuctiona  foi]  J^ppijentices: 

WITH   SEVERAL  USEFUL  TABLES, 

NUMEROUS  SCHEMES   FOR  IMPOSING  FORMS   IN   EVERY  VARIETY, 

HINTS   TO   AUTHORS,  ETC. 


By  Thomas  MacKellar,  Ph.  D. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
MACKELLAR,  SMITHS  &  JORDAN  FOUNDRY. 

1893- 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1866,  by 

L.Johnson  &  Company, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1878,  by 

MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


Cig^tttnt^  (gbition — ^faistb  nnb  (fnlargeb. 


ELECTROTVPEO    BY 

MACKELLAR,  SMITHS    &    JORDAN    FOUNDRY, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


EIGHTEENTH    EDITION. 


THIS  edition  of  the  American  Printer,  while  essen- 
tially the  same  as  the  previous  one,  contains  some 
additional  matter. 


Philadelphia, 

March,  iSgj. 


1 252989 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 


r  TSEFULNESS   rather  than   originality   has   been 


u 


aimed  at  in  the  preparation  of  the  American 


Printer,  which  is  offered  as  an  improvement  on  the 
typographical  work  formerly  published  by  us.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  results  of  actual  personal  experience  em- 
bodied in  the  volume,  information  has  been  gathered 
and  extracts  have  been  freely  made  from  various 
publications,  such  as  Ames  and  Dibdin's  Typographical 
Antiquities,  Thomas's  History  of  Printitig,  Timperley's 
Dictionary  of  Printers  and  Printing,  Savage's  Diction- 
ary of  Printing,  fohnson's  Typographia,  Chambers's 
Encyclopcsdia,  Beadnell's  Gnide  to  Typography,  as  well 
as  other  books  referred  to  in  the  notes.  The  work  has 
been  prepared  amid  the  manifold  interruptions  incident 
to  business  life ;  yet  we  think  nothing  has  been  over- 
looked that  is  essential  for  the  instruction  of  the  learner 
or  for  the  assistance  of  the  workman. 

1  V 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 


Besides  the  matter  relating  to  practical  typography, 
the  volume  contains  a  sketch  of  the  discovery  of  printing, 
and  notices  of  type-founding,  stereotyping,  electrotyping, 
and  lithography.  The  implements  employed  in  typo- 
graphy are  described  and  their  uses  explained;  and 
complete  schemes  for  imposition  are  laid  down.  The 
valuable  tables  and  the  plans  of  cases  for  various  lan- 
guages, and  for  music  and  labour-saving  rule,  will  be 
found  extremely  useful;  as  well  as  the  extensive  lists 
of  abbreviations  and  of  foreign  words  and  phrases,  and 
orthographical  hints. 

Special  attention  has  been  given  in  setting  forth  the 
functions  and  duties  of  the  foreman  and  proof-reader, 
so  that  the  operations  of  an  office  may  be  prosecuted 
with  efficiency,  comfort,  and  economy. 

Authors  and  publishers,  as  well  as  young  printers, 
may  consult  the  volume  with  profit;  and,  indeed,  any 
intelligent  person  will  find  it  ser\'iceable. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGK. 


Rise  and  Progress  of  Printing 13-48 

Discovery  of  Printing— Laurentius  Koster—Geinsfleisch— Guten- 
berg—Fust— Bible  printed— Peter  Schoeffer— Caxton— Ulrich  Zell 
— Lambert  Palmaert — Abraham  Colorito— Humphreys  and  De 
Vinne  on  the  invention  of  printing — Lenox's  collection  of  rare 
Bibles  — Ancient  typographical  peculiarities  — Catchwords  — In- 
vention of  Signatures— Printing  introduced  into  America— Type- 
founding  in  Europe— Decree  of  the  Star  Chamber— Type-founding 
in  America— Prices  of  Type— Stereotyping— Electrotyping— Litho- 
graphy— Engraving — Walk  over  a  type-foundry. 


Implements  or  Tools  of  the  Art 49-120 

Types— Roman  letter— Italic— Elack—Anglo-Saxon—Names  and 
sizes  of  type— Gradations  of  type— Point  System  of  Type  bodies— 
A  Bill  of  Pica— A  Fount  of  type— Capitals— Small  capitals— 
Points— Apostrophe— Hyphen— Parenthesis  and  Bracket— Refer- 
ences—Accents— Numerals— Arabic  figures— Old-style  figures- 
Cancelled  figures— Fractions— Signs  — Metal  rules  or  dashes— 
Braces— Spaces— Two-line  letters  — Quadrates— Quotations— La- 
bour-saving quotation  furniture  — Hollow  quadrates  —  Circular 
quadrates— Labour-saving  curvatures— Leads— Flowers  and  bor- 
ders—Brass rule— Brass  labour-saving  rule— Improved  labour- 
saving  rule  case— Earliest  written  sounds— Hieroglyphic  alphabet 
—Runic  alphabets— Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  and  plan  of  cases- 
German  alphabet  and  plan  of  cases— Greek  alphabet  and  plan  of 
cases— Hebrew  alphabet  and  plan  of  cases— Russian  alphabet- 
Comparative  table  of  bodies  of  .Music  type— Music  composition- 
Music  cases — Modem  conveniences. 


Composition 


121-140 


General  remarks— Requisites  in  an  apprentice— American  cases- 
Position  of  a  compositor— Laying  t>'pe— Distributing— Composing 
—  Spacing—  Justifying  —  Head-lines  —  Notes  —  Blanking—  Para- 
graphs—Indexes— Titles— Dedications— Contents— Prefaces— Sig- 
naturing— Errata — Ironical  rules — Advice  to  apprentices— Ironical 
rules  for  beginners  in  business. 


CONTENTS. 


Imposition 141-199 

General  remarks — Tying  up  pages — Laying  pages — Making  up 
furniture — Making  the  margin — Locking  up  forms — Memoranda — 
Nomenclature  of  sheets  —  Schemes  for  imposing,  from  folio  to 
izSmo. 


Proof-reading  and  Correcting 200-217 

Qualifications  of  a  reader — Should  be  a  printer — Indebtedness  of 
authors  to  proof-readers  —  Process  of  reading  —  Proof  record — 
Errors  made  in  correcting — Two  readers  desirable — Punctuation — 
Alterations  in  proof — Stower's  remarks — Revise — Correcting  in  the 
metal — Capricious  alterations — Proper  method  of  correcting — Over- 
running— Hints  to  authors — Table  of  proof-marks,with  explanations 
— Table  of  signatures. 


THE  Foreman  or  Overseer 218-234 

General  duties — Treatment  of  compositors — Punctuality — Morning 
duties — Knowledge  of  all  materials  on  hand — Order — Overseeing 
work — Reg\ilating  takes  of  copy — Prompt  reading  and  correcting — 
Memorandum — Press-book —  Press  duties — Warehouse — Casting 
off  copy  —  Managing  hurried  work  —  Companionships  —  Taking 
copy — Making  up — Dividing  the  letter — Making  up  furniture — 
Imposing  and  distributing  letter — Correcting — Transposition  of 
pages — Rules  to  be  observed  in  a  printing-office. 


The  Press  and  its  Working 235-292 

History  of  the  printing-press — Blaeu,  its  first  improver — Ramage 
press — Stanhope  press — Clymer  or  Columbian  press — Smith  press 
— Washington  press — Adams's  bed-and-platen  power-press — Inven- 
tion of  the  Cylinder  press — Frederick  Konig — William  Nicholson 
— Dr.  Kinsley — Applegath  and  Cowper — Account  of  the  house  of 
R.  Hoe  &  Co. — Stop  Cylinder  press — Cottrell  &  Babcock  presses — 
Campbell  presses  —  Richard  M.  Hoe's  type-revolving  printing 
machine — Bullock  perfecting  press — The  Walter  perfecting  press — 
The  Hoe  perfecting  press — Presses  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition, 
1876 — Railroad-ticket  printing  and  numbering  press — Job  presses — 
Ruggles,  Hoc, Gordon,  Degener, Wells,  and  Gaily — Franklin  press — 
Nonpareil  press  —  Fire-fly  press  —  Liberty  press  —  Globe  press  — 
Peerless  press — Universal  press — Amateur  presses — Folding  ma- 
chines— Setting  up  a  Washington  press — Setting  up  the  roller- 
stand — Composition  rollers — Melting  kettle — Covering  tympans — 
Wetting  paper — Blankets — Making  ready  a  form  on  a  hand-press — 
Pulling — Rules  and  remedies  for  pressmen — Ley-trough — Making 
ready  on  cylinder  presses — Fine  hand-presswork — Printing  wood- 


CONTENTS.  IX 


PACK. 

The  Press  and  its  Working. — (Continued) 235-292 

cuts — Card  printing — Gold  printing — Bronze  printing — Printing  in 
colours — Ink  stone  and  muller — How  to  use  dry  colours — How  to 
multiply  colours — Contrast  of  colours — Oiling  a  press — How  to  treat 
wood  type. 


Warehouse  Department 293-299 

Warehouseman — Warehouse-Book — Receipt  of  paper  and  delivery 
of  sheets — Giving  out  paper  to  wet — Over-sheets — Hanging  up 
paper  to  dry — Taking  down  sheets  when  dry — Filling  in  and  press- 
ing sheets — Counting  out  and  putting  away  sheets — Standard  sizes 
of  machine-made  paper — Table  for  giving  out  paper  for  a  thousand 
copies. 


Jobbing  Facilities 300-310 

Selection  of  type  and  presses — How  to  make  a  paying  business — 
Memorandum  order — Estimate  book — Ames's  paper  and  card  scale 
— Le  Blond's  chart — Cabinets  and  cases — Rules  for  the  govern- 
ment of  a  job  office — Job  composing-sticks — Patent  quoins — Corner 
quadrates  —  Shooting  sticks  —  Mitering  machine — Lead  cutter — 
Perforating  machines — Imposing  stone — Copy-holder — Paper  and 
card  cutters — Megill's  patent  gauge  pin — E.\tension  feed-guide — 
Automatic  counters — Patent  ink  fountain — Iron  furniture. 


Useful  Receipts 311-317 

How  to  make  printers'  rollers — German  preservative  for  rollers — 
Directions  for  recasting  rollers — Printers'  ley — Paste — Mucilage — 
Glue — Gum — Magenta  surface  paper — Coloured  writing  inks — Fire- 
proof ink — Printing  ink  varnish — Lithographic  transfer  ink — To 
give  dark  printing  inks  a  bronze  or  changeable  hue — An  ink  for 
marking  tin  or  zinc — Drying  preparations — Silvering  solutions — To 
soften  leather  belting — How  to  open  a  ball  of  twine — To  prevent 
adhesion  of  paper — To  detect  ground  wood  in  paper — French  gold 
printing — Transfer  varnish— To  make  paper  waterproof— To  pre- 
serve books — To  restore  engravings. 


Orthographical 318-332 

Discrepancies — a  or  an  before  a  vowel  or  silent  h — o  or  oh — able 
and  ible — im  or  in  and  em  or  en — in  and  un — ise  and  ize — or  and 
our — sion  and  tio7i — Farther  and  further — Peas  and  pease — 
Omission  of  j  in  the  possessive  case — Formation  of  the  plurals  of 
words  compounded  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective — Pointing  of  numbers, 
weights,  measures,  &c. — Derivation  of  English  words — Rules  for 
spelling — Plurals  of  nouns. 

1* 


CONTENTS. 


PACB. 

How  TO  Secure  Copyrights 333-335 

Printed  title  required — Application  to  be  made  to  Librarian  of 
Congress — Style  of  printed  title — Fees — Two  complete  copies 
required — Penalty — Notice  of  copyright  to  be  given  by  imprint — 
Form  of  notice — Penalty  for  false  notice — Authors  may  reserve  the 
right  to  translate  or  dramatize — Form  of  notice — Original  works 
only  will  be  entered — Duration  of  copyright — Renewal — Form  of 
application  for  renewal — Time  of  publication — Copyright  may  be 
secured  for  a  projected  as  well  as  for  a  completed  work — Assign- 
ments— Fees — Copies  or  duplicate  certificates — Serials  or  sepa- 
rate publications — Copyright  required  for  each  volume  or  part  of 
a  book — Copyrights  for  works  of  art — Copyrights  cannot  be 
granted  upon  trade-marks  or  labels — Fee  for  registering  at  Patent 
Office — Citizens  or  residents  of  the  United  States  only  entitled  to 
copyright — Full  name  and  residence  of  claimant  required. 


The  Metric  System 336,  337 

Technical  Terms  of  the  Craft 338-343 

Abbreviations 344-356 

Foreign  Words  and  Phrases 337-372 

Index 373-383 


^^M 


.I'^'fjC- 


I  &b  ?b  ib  CO  wi     tii,  be   bj    bo  ' 
J  aft  f4  it  oi  tta|  tta  H  o;    oo  -. 

luJJb?:  name  Qf  IbeMtlxr  ^no  of  I 

imr  jrat])^r^bitl7  art  m^cm 
i5s-,i:icct.])aUotDe^  bctb>^jSame| 

|xi^nM^a^\i5tiot-into  tcmrrtA 
|tiorklati|ii4(i'Uerij;j  ftcrn  e^^lli 


ri's^lUJ 


HORN-BOOK   OF   THE   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


The  Song  of  the  Printer. 


piCK  and  click 

^     Goes  the  type  in  the  stick, 
As  the  printer  stands  at  his  case ; 
His  eyes  glance  quick,  and  his  fingers  pick 

The  type  at  a  rapid  pace  ; 
And  one  by  one  as  tlie  letters  go. 
Words  are  piled  up  steady  and  slow — 

Steady  and  slow. 

But  still  they  grow. 
And  words  of  fire  they  soon  will  glow; 
Wonderful  words,  that  without  a  sound 
Traverse  the  earth  to  its  utmost  bound; 

Words  that  shall  make 

The  tyrant  quake. 
And  the  fetters  of  the  oppress'd  shall  break; 
Words  that  can  crumble  an  army's  might. 
Or  treble  its  strength  in  a  righteous  fight. 
Yet  the  types  they  look  but  leaden  and  dumb. 
As  he  puts  them  in  place  with  finger  and  thumb, 

But  the  printer  smiles. 

And  his  work  beguiles 
By  chanting  a  song  as  the  letters  he  piles. 

With  pick  and  click. 
Like  the  world's  chronometer,  tickl  tick!  tickl 

O,  where  is  the  man  with  such  simple  tools 

Can  govern  the  world  as  I  ? 
With  a  printing  press,  an  iron  stick, 

Anfl  a  little  leaden  die. 
With  paper  of  white,  and  ink  of  black, 
1  support  the  Right,  and  the  Wrong  attack. 

Say,  where  is  he,  or  who  may  he  be, 
That  can  rival  the  printer's  power? 

To  no  monarchs  that  live  the  wall  doth  he  give  : 
Their  sway  lasts  only  an  hour ; 

While  the  printer  still  grows,  and  God  only  knows 
When  his  might  shall  cease  to  tower  1 

Anon. 


^rQericar} 


OM.^/r> 


Hereby,  fancies  are  known,  knowledge  groweth,  judg^nent  increaseth,  books 
are  dispersed,  the  Scripture  is  read,  stories  be  opened,  times  compared,  truth 
discerned,falsehood  detected  andwith  finger  pointed,  and  (all  as  I  said)  through 
the  benefit  of  Printing.  Fox's  Martyrs. 


At  the  very  epoch  when  the  greatness  of  Burgundy  was  most  siviftiy  ripening, 
another  "weapon  was  secretly  forging,  tnore  potent  in  the  great  struggle  for 
freedom  than  any  which  the  wit  or  hand  of  man  has  ever  devised  or  wielded. 
When  Philip  the  Good,  in  the  full  blaze  of  his  paiver,  and  flushed  with  the 
triumphs  of  territorial  aggrandizement ,  was  instituting  at  Bruges  the  order  of 
the  Golden  Fleece,  "to  the  glory  of  God,  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  and  of  the  holy 
Andrew,  patron  saint  of  the  Burgundian  family,"  and  enrolling  the  names  of 
the  kings  and  princes  who  were  to  be  honoured  with  its  symbols,  at  that  very 
moment,  an  obscure  citizen  of  Haarlem,  one  Lorenz  Coster,  or  Lawrence  the 
Sexton,  succeeded  in  printing  a  little  grammar,  by  means  of  movable  types.  The 
invention  of  printing  luas  accomplished,  but  it  Tuas  not  ushered  in  with  such  a 
blaze  of  glory  as  heralded  the  contemporaneous  erection  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
The  humble  setter  of  types  did  not  deem  emperors  and  princes  alone  luorthy  his 
companionship.  His  invention  sent  no  thrill  of  admiration  throughout  Christen- 
dom; and  yet,  what  was  the  good  Philip  of  Burgundy ,  with  his  Knights  of  the 
Golden  Fleece,  and  all  their  effulgent  trumpery ,  in  the  eye  of  humanity  and 
civilization,  compared  with  the  poor  sexton  and  his  wooden  type  ? 

Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  Vol.  i,  45. 


m 


o/l\o 


mmtHtt 


RISE  AND   PROGRESS  OF  PRINTING: 


DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING. 

^\HE  credit  of  inventing  the  art  which  per- 
'^  petuates  the  history  and  achievements  of 
all  the  arts  and  sciences  has  been  obsti- 
nately contested,  several  cities  having  ad- 
vanced rival  claims  to  the  honour  of  the 
discovery.  This,  however,  should  be  no 
matter  of  surprise  when  we  consider  that 
the  inventor  of  a  new  art,  unprotected  by 
law,  would  naturally  endeavour  to  conceal  its  processes  for  his 
own  use  and  advantage.  After  due  consideration,  we  agree 
with  Isaiah  Thomas  in  the  opinion  that  the  probabilities  point 
to  Laurextrs  ( sometimes  called  Coster,  Koster,  and  Kustos) 
as  the  discoverer  of  the  art  of  printing.'!' 


W  The  earliest  testimony  in  favour  of  Koster  is  contained  in  a  German  volume 
published  at  Cologne  in  1499,  known  as  the  Chronicie  0/  Cologne,  which  was  printed 
by  Ulrich  Zell,  originally  of  Mayence,  and  a  well-known  follower  of  Gutenberg  and 
his  system.  Under  the  heading  "Of  the  art  of  printing  books,  when  and  where,  and 
by  whom,  was  invented  the  inexpressibly  useful  art  of  printing  books,"  the  author 
says,  "Although  the  art,  as  now  practised,  was  discovered  at  Mayence,  neverthe- 
less the  first  idea  came  from  Holland,  and  the  Donati,  which  had  been  previously 
printed  there.  Those  books  are  therefore  the  origin  of  the  art."^See  Humphreys, 
ch.  iii.  and  iv. 

We  cite  further  the  following  well-known  account : — 

"About  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  years  ago,  Laurens  Zanssen  Coster  in- 
habited a  decent  and  fashionable  house  in  the  city  of  Haarlem ,  situated  on  the  market- 
place, opposite  the  royal  palace.  The  name  of  Coster  was  assumed,  and  inherited 
from  his  ancestors,  who  had  long  enjoyed  the  honourable  and  lucrative  office  of 


DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING. 


Laurentius  lived  at  Haarlem  and  was  a  man  of  property. 
He  seems  to  have  been  engaged  in  printing  books  from  wood 
l)locks  or  plates,  well  known  to  antiqnaries  as  the  Block  Books, 
in  whicii  the  reading  matter  was  ilhistrated  by  rude  pictures. 
Fragments  of  works  so  printed  by  him  are  still  in  existence. 
Among  others,  the  celebrated  Biblia  Paupcrum,  executed  be- 
tween 1410  and  1420,  has  been  attributed  to  him.  It  was  only 
natural  that  his  thoughts  should  be  led  to  the  production  of 
single  types,  as  a  means  of  cheapening  and  facilitating  his 
work.  These  were  first  made  of  wood,  and  afterward  of  tin. 
The  date  of  his  invention  of  separate  types  is  given  as  about 
the  year  1429.     Other  dates  have  been  stated,  ranging  from 

coster  or  sexton  to  the  church.  This  man  deserves  to  be  restoreil  to  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  inventor  of  printing,  of  which  he  has  been  unjustly  deprived  by  others, 
who  have  enjoyed  the  praises  due  to  him  alone.  As  he  was  walking  in  the  wood 
contiguous  to  the  city,  which  was  the  general  custom  of  the  richer  citizens  and  men 
of  leisure,  in  the  afternoon  and  on  holidays,  he  began  to  cut  letters  on  the  bark  of 
the  beech  ;  with  these  letters  he  enstamped  marks  upon  paper  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion, in  the  manner  of  a  seal,  until  at  length  he  formed  a  few  lines  for  his  own 
amusement  and  for  the  use  of  the  children  of  his  brotlier-in-law.  This  succeeding 
so  well,  he  attempted  greater  things;  and,  being  a  man  of  genius  and  reflection,  he 
invented,  with  the  aid  of  his  brother-  or  son-in-law,  Thomas  Pietrison,  a  thicker  and 
more  adhesive  ink,  as  the  common  ink  was  too  thin  and  made  blotted  marks.  With 
this  ink  he  was  able  to  print  blocks  and  figures,  to  which  he  adcied  letters.  I  have 
seen  specimens  of  his  printing  in  this  manner.  In  the  beginning  he  printed  on 
one  side  only.  This  was  a  Dutch  book,  entitled  Spicgal enser  Bchoudcnisse.  That 
it  was  one  of  the  fir^t  books  printed  after  the  invention  of  the  art,  appears  from  the 
leaves,  which  are  pasted  together,  that  the  naked  sides  might  not  be  offensive  to  the 
eyes ;  and  none  at  first  were  printed  in  a  more  perfect  manner.  As  this  new  species 
of  traffic  attracted  numerous  customers,  thus  did  the  profits  arising  from  it  increase 
his  love  for  the  art  and  his  diligence  in  the  exercise  of  it. 

"  He  engaged  workmen,  which  w.as  the  source  of  the  mischief  Among  the.se  work- 
men was  one  Jan :  whether  his  surname  be  that  of  Faust,  or  any  other,  is  of  no 

great  importance  to  me,  as  I  will  not  disturb  the  dead,  whose  consciences  must  have 
smote  them  sufficiently  while  living.  This  Jan,  who  assisted  at  the  printing  press 
under  oath,  after  he  had  learned  the  art  of  casting  the  types,  setting  them,  and 
other  articles  belonging  to  the  art,  and  thought  himself  sufficiently  instructed,  having 
watched  the  opportunity,  as  he  could  not  find  a  better,  he  packed  up  the  types 
and  the  other  articles  on  Christmas  eve,  while  the  family  was  engaged  in  celebrating 
tlie  festival,  and  stole  away  with  them.  He  first  fled  to  Amsterdam,  thence  to 
Cologne,  until  he  could  establish  himself  at  Mentz,  as  a  secure  place,  where  he  might 
open  shop  and  reap  the  fruits  of  his  knavery.  It  is  a  known  fact  that  within  the 
twelve  months  (that  is,  in  the  year  1440)  he  published  the  Atexandri  Galli  Doc- 
trinale,  (a  grammar  at  that  time  in  high  repute,)  with  Petri  Ilispani  Tractatibus 
Logicis,  with  the  same  letters  which  Laurens  had  used.  These  were  undoubtedly 
the  first  products  of  his  press.  These  are  the  principal  circumstances  that  I  have 
collected  from  creditable  persons  far  advanced  in  years,  which  they  have  transmitted 
like  a  flaming  torch  from  hand  to  hand  ;  I  have  also  met  with  others  who  have 
confirmed  the  same." — lladiiantis  yunitcs,  1568. 


DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING. 


1422  to  1436.  The  first  of  his  printed  books,  it  is  claimed, 
was  the  Speculum  Humance  Salvationis,  of  which  about  ten 
copies  are  now  known  to  be  in  existence.  A  small  primer,  or 
Abecedarium,  in  our  opinion,  shows  all  the  marks  of  the  first 
attempt  of  an  experimenter  in  a  new  art.  Koster  died  in  1439. 
The  necessity  for  employing  workmen  to  assist  in  prosecu- 
ting the  art  led  to  the  divulging  of  the  secret.  Among  these 
men,  it  is  supposed,  was  John  Geinsfleisch,  (or  Gutenberg, 
Senior,)  who,  after  learning  the  processes,  returned  to  Mentz, 
his  native  place,  and  communicated  the  secret  to  his  nephew, 
John  Gutenberg,  an  ingenious  artist  of  Strasburg.  It  is  in 
evidence  that  the  latter,  in  connection  with  two  partners,  spent 
a  considerable  amount  of  money  in  some  private  experiments. 
These  appear  to  have  occupied  several  years,  from  1436  to 
1439,  when  a  legal  contest  arose  as  to  the  rights  of  one  of  the 
partners  whose  zealous  activity  had  caused  his  death.  Guten- 
berg continued  at  Strasburg  till  1444,  when,  his  means  being 
exhausted,  he  rejoined  his  uncle  at  Mentz.  Here  he  renewed 
his  experiments,  and,  needing  money,  he  procured  an  intro- 
duction to  John  Fust,  a  capitalist  and  money-lender,  who 
seems  to  have  been  struck  with  the  importance  of  the  work, 
and  who  advanced  a  considerable  amount  (all  the  tools  and 
presses  being  pledged  as  security)  in  furtherance  of  the  enter- 
prise. Two  years  were  occupied  in  making  the  types  and 
necessary  machinery,  when  the  great  work  of  printing  the 
Bible  was  begun.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  during  all 
his  years  of  experiment,  Gutenberg  had  executed  smaller 
books,  one  of  which  is  surmised  to  have  been  a  reproduction 
of  the  Dutch  Speculum  of  Koster.  The  Donatus  of  1451,  the 
Appeal  against  the  Turks  of  1454,  and  the  Letters  of  Indul- 
gence  of  1454  and  1455,  all  appeared  before  the  Bible,<i'  which 

(')  The  first  copies  of  the  Bible  are  not  dated,  and  do  not  contain  the  printer's 
name.  Only  a  few  impressions  have  been  preserved  to  the  present  time ;  indeed, 
they  were  entirely  lost  to  the  world  until  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century,  when  a 
copy  was  discovered  in  the  library  of  Cardinal  Mazarin  in  Paris;  hence,  the  few 
existing  copies  are  generally  spoken  of  as  Mazarin  Bibles.  Some  of  these  were 
printed  on  vellum,  but  the  earliest  copies  were  on  paper.  There  are  only  six  copies 
now  extant ;  two  of  which  are  in  the  United  States,  one  belonging  to  the  collection 
of  the  late  Mr.  George  Brinley  of  Connecticut,  and  the  other  owned  by  the  late 
IMr.  James  Lenox  of  New  York.  These  two  copies  are  on  paper.  The  Brinley 
copy  is  said  to  have  a  leaf  or  two  in  facsimile,  while  the  Lenox  copy  is  perfect  in 
every  respect.  This  copy,  together  with  his  unequalled  collection  of  rare  Bibles, 
now  enriches  the  magnificent  Lenox  Library,  founded  in  New  York,  in  1870,  by 

2 


DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING. 


was  not  published  till  1455  or  1456.  This  great  book  marked 
an  era  in  the  art/^^ 

It  is  painful  to  be  told  that  about  this  time  Fust  foreclosed 
the  mortgage,  and  the  entire  work  with  all  the  materials 
passed  into  his  possession.  It  seems,  however,  that  Guten- 
berg succeeded  in  re-establishing  a  press,  and  continued  to 
practise  the  art,  but  produced  no  work  at  all  comparable  with 
the  Bible.     He  died  about  1468. 

After  securing  possession  of  the  establishment.  Fust  en- 
gaged the  service  of  Peter  Schoeffer,  w^ho  had  been  apprentice 
or  assistant  to  Gutenberg,  and  who  was  distinguished  for 
scholarship  as  well  as  mechanical  skill.  His  skill  and  the 
improvements  made  by  him  in  the  art  soon  led  Fust  to  take 
him  into  partnership,  and  the  Bible,  the  Psalter,  and  other 
important  works  w^ere  produced.  Schceflfer  was  further  re- 
warded by  the  hand  of  the  grand-daughter  of  Fust. 

From  this  rapid  summary,  we  may  conclude,  i.  That  the 
merit  of  the  invention  of  printing,  however  rude  it  may  have 
been,  belongs  to  Koster  of  Haarlem ;  2.  That  Gutenberg  placed 
the  art  on  a  permanent  foundation;  and,  3.  That  its  eco- 
nomical application  was  insured  by  Peter  Schoefter's  invention 
of  cast  metal  types. ^2' 

this  excellent  and  wisely  beneficent  man.  The  four  remaining  copies  are  in  Europe, 
two  of  which  were  sold  in  London  at  auction ;  one  on  vellum  selling  for  $20,000, 
and  the  other,  on  paper,  bringing  $14,000. 

(•)  "The  names  of  Koster  and  Gutenberg  will  ever  remain  associated  with  its 
positive  invention;  and  to  Koster,  if  we  are  to  be  guided  by  a  vast  mass  of  un- 
answerable evidence  in  his  favour,  must  be  assigned  the  glory  of  achieving  the  first 
actual  steps  in  that  art,  of  which  Gutenberg  was  soon  destined,  not  only  to  extend 
and  solidify  the  basis,  but  to  raise  at  once  upon  that  basis  a  most  noble  superstruc- 
ture."— Humphreys,  p.  50. 

(2)  For  detailed  and  conflicting  accounts,  see  Humphreys's  History  0/ the  Art  of 
Printing,  (London,)  and  DeVinne's  Invention  of  Printing,  (New  York.) 

Humphreys  dispassionately  goes  over  the  ground,  and  while  giving  due  credit  to 
Gutenberg,  awards  to  Koster  the  honour  of  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing.  A 
perusal  of  DeVinne,  on  the  other  hand,  leaves  the  impression  of  an  effort  to 
prove  a  preconceived  opinion,  every  probability  in  favour  of  Koster  being  curtly 
set  aside,  and  every  perchance  on  the  side  of  Gutenberg  being  regarded  as  incon- 
trovertible fact.  De  Vinne  derides  the  idea  that  types  were  at  first  cut,  and  not  cast 
or  founded ;  and  this  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that  in  the  earliest  printed  books,  there 
are  not  two  letters  of  one  kind  that  are  precisely  alike  in  a  page  ;  that  is,  every  letter 
a  varies  somewhat  from  all  other  a's,  and  so  with  b  and  all  other  letters.  This  could 
not  be  the  case  if  the  types  were  cast  or  founded.  To  support  his  view,  De  Vinne 
copies  from  De  la  Borde  a  wood  engraving  representing  letters  cut  and  sawn  apart; 
and  from  the  imperfection  of  this  experiment  argues  that  the  first  types  could  not 


DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING.  13 

It  was  of  course  impossible  to  conceal  the  knowledge  of 
an  art  so  useful  to  man,  and  within  ten  years  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  great  Bible  presses  were  established  in  several 
German  cities,  in  Rome  and  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  soon 
thereafter  in  France  and  England. 

have  been  cut.  This  proves  nothing  except  the  incapacity  of  the  experimenter.  A 
dozen  years  ago  an  ingenious  man  in  Philadelphia  produced  copper-headed  types 
in  a  mass  on  type-metal  bodies,  which  had  to  be  cut  apart  singly.  The  specimen 
of  these  types  here  given  proves  conclusively  that  the  thing  can  be  done  far  better 
than  was  done  by  Koster  on  wood  or  metal,  though  his  types  were  ten  times  larger 
than  these  : — 

abcdefgbijklmnopqrstuv  wxy  z\  BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU  VWX  YZ 
New  York  New  Jersey  Mississippi  Georgia  Virginia  Louisiana  Tennesisee  Arkansas 

Kentucky  New  Hampshire  Maine  Massachusetts  Kansas 
We  have  repeated  the  experiment  in  our  own  foundry  with  Long  Primer  type,  and 
with  a  similar  result.  These  experiments  are  sufficient  to  show  the  ungroundedness 
of  Mr.  De  Vinne's  argument.  He  further  states  that  in  some  of  the  specimens  given 
by  him,  the  letters  have  been  so  worn  that  they  have  run  into  one  another;  but  the 
fact  is,  such  letters  were  logotypes,  and  cut  on  the  same  block.  Any  accurate  type- 
founder can  verify  this  fact  almost  at  a  glance.  In  a  lecture  by  Mr.  Josiah  Marples, 
an  accurate  English  printer,  before  the  Liverpool  Literarj-  and  Philosophical  Society 
on  Type-fottnders  and  Type-founding,  the  speaker  alluded  to  Caxton  and  his  types, 
and  to  Mr.  Vincent  Figgins's  reproduction  of  the  "  Game  of  Chesse,"  whose  nephew 
had  enabled  him  to  exhibit  a  copy  of  the  same  to  the  meeting.  "  Mr.  Vincent  Fig- 
gins,  whose  skill  as  a  practical  type-founder,"  it  was  remarked,  "entitled  his  opinion 
to  great  weight,  believed  that  the  book  was  not  printed  from  types  such  as  were  cast 
by  Schceffer,  but  from  types  which  were  cast  with  solid  faces,  upon  which  were  cut 
with  the  graver  each  letter  separately.  To  this  Mr.  Figgins  attributed  the  fact  that 
in  the  original  book  no  pure  style  of  letters  was  used,  but  a  mixture  between  the  old 
black  and  that  called  Secretary ;  that  no  two  letters  were  exactly  alike,  and  that 
frequent  use  was  made  of  logotypes." 

Mr.  De  Vinne  finds  some  difficulty  in  demolishing  the  Koster  "legend"  (as  he 
and  Van  der  Linde  call  it)  in  the  fact  that  the  existence  of  numerous  volumes  and 
fragments  of  ancient  printing  have  to  be  somehow  accounted  for  ;  and  he  thereupon 
adopts  the  hypothesis  of  an  unknown  printer,  to  whom  he  attributes  these  early 
productions.  The  admittedly  ancient  water-marks  in  the  paper  he  rules  out,  simply 
because  such  water-marks  were  used  long  afterward.  He  gives  fac-simile  specimens 
of  the  types  used  in  these  books;  but,  in  violation  of  all  the  laws  of  probability,  he 
gives  the  inferior  specimens  last.  The  necessities  of  his  theory  compelled  him  to  this 
course,  the  natural  order  being  the  reverse  of  the  one  adopted  by  him.  The  inferior 
specimens  show  clearly  the  first  attempts  of  an  inventor,  an  inventor  too  who  had 
before  been  a  block  printer.  The  succeeding  books  show  as  clearly  the  successive 
stages  of  improvement,  the  last  stage  of  which  was  equal  or  even  superior  to 
any  thing  executed  by  Gutenberg  before  the  appearance  of  the  great  Bible.  This 
"unknown  printer"  was  doubtless  Koster. 

It  is  by  no  means  a  wild  question  whether  the  credit  of  even  the  first  Bible  be- 
longs to  Gutenberg  or  to  Peter  Schceffer;  for,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  partnership 
between  Gutenberg  and  Fust,  the  former  produced  nothing  worthy  of  note,  while 
Schoeffer  printed  the  Bible  again,  as  well  as  other  works,  notably  the  Psalter,  a  most 
wonderful  specimen  of  ancient  typography.     Schoeffer  appears  to  be  as  undoubtedly 


14  DISCOVERY  OF  PRINTING. 

William  Caxton  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  art  in  Ger- 
many, and  carried  it  into  practice  at  Westminster  in  England. 
The  year  1477  is  now  accepted  as  the  date  of  the  introduction, 
the  first  book  printed  with  a  date  in  England  being  the  Dictes 
and  Sayinges  of  the  Philosophers,  euipiynted  by  me,  William 
Caxton,  at  Westviestre,  the  yere  of  our  Lord  in.cccc.l.xxvij. 
He  had  previously  printed,  without  a  date,  The  Recuyell  of 
the  Historyes  of  Troye,  which  was  followed  by  The  Game  and 
Flaye  of  the  Chesse,  fynysshid  the  last  day  of  marche  the  yer 
of  our  lord  god.  a.  thousand  four e  hondcrd  and  Ixxiiii.  These 
were,  however,  printed  at  Bruges ;  so,  according  to  Mr.  William 
Blades,  "the  first  indisputable  date  we  have  to  stand  on  is  the 
printing  of  The  Dictes  in  1477." 

Though  at  that  time  over  sixty  years  old,  Caxton  was  no- 
table for  his  industrious  habit.  He  was  possessed  of  good 
sense  and  sound  judgment ;  steady,  persevering,  active,  zeal- 
ous, and  liberal  in  his  devices  for  that  important  art  which  he 
introduced  into  England,  labouring  not  only  as  a  printer,  but 
as  translator  and  author.  The  productions  of  his  press  amount 
to  sixty-four.  In  the  churchwardens'  books  of  St.  Margaret's 
Parish,  Westminster,  his  death  is  thus  recorded:  "  1491.  Item, 
atte  bureyng  of  William  Caxton,  for  iiii.  torches  \]S.  \\\}d. 
Item,  for  the  belle  atte  same  bureyng,  vjV." 

The  Bible  was  printed  in  Spanish  at  Valencia  in  1479  by 
Lambert  Palmaert,  a  German;  but  so  completely  w'as  it  after- 
ward suppressed  by  the  Inquisition  that  only  four  leaves  now 
remain  in  the  archives  of  Valencia.  The  finst  Hebrew  Bible 
ever  printed  came  from  the  press  of  Abraham  Colorito,  at 
Soncino,  in  1488 — a  very  remarkable  work.  Iceland  had  its 
printing-office  in  1530,  at  which  a  Bible  was  printed  in  1584. 

the  inventor  of  type-founding  as  Koster  was  of  printing, — Gutenberg  was  neither, 
though  we  must  award  him  high  credit  for  his  skill  in  availing  himself  of  the  know- 
ledge derived  from  Koster,  and  his  perseverance  through  a  series  of  years.  But  the 
almost  impenetrable  cloud  of  mystery  that  surrounds  the  discovery  of  printing 
should  induce  a  spirit  of  hesitancy  that  is  not  at  all  characteristic  of  Van  der  Linde 
and  others.  Neither  ifs,  huts,  nor  perhapses,  nor  strained  inferences,  prove  any- 
thing except  the  weakness  of  the  argument  that  rests  upon  them. 

We  are  satisfied  that  the  types  used  by  the  first  printers  were  not  cast  or  founded 
in  a  mode  at  all  approximating  to  the  modem  method.  The  question  is,  not  who 
was  the  first  type-founder  in  the  modern  style,  but  who  was  the  first  printer  with 
movable  types,  no  matter  whether  of  wood,  pewter,  or  tin ;  and  we  agree  with  the 
judicious  Isaiah  Thomas  in  the  opinion  that  Koster  was  that  man. 

See  Haarlem  the  Birthplace  of  Printing,  not  Mentz,  by  J.  H.  Hessels,  Cam- 
bridge, England,  1887 :  an  emphatic  confutation  of  the  Gutenberg  legend. 


ANCIENT  PECULIARITIES.  15 


ANCIENT  PECULIARITIES. 

THE  pages  were  either  large  or  small  folios,  but  sometimes 
quartos,  and,  the  early  books  were  therefore  cumbrous 
and  unhandy.  Aldus  Manuccio,  of  Venice,  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  octavo  form. 

The  leaves  were  without  running  titles,  direction-words, 
paginal  numbers,  or  divisions  into  paragraphs. 

The  character  itself  was  a  rude  old  Gothic  (similar  to  that 
now  known  as  Old  English  or  Black)  mixed  with  Secretary, 
designed  to  imitate  the  handwriting  of  the  times;  the  words 
were  printed  so  close  to  one  another  that  the  matter  was 
not  easily  read. 

To  avoid  divisions,  the  early  printers  used  vowels  with  a 
mark  of  abbreviation  over  them  to  denote  that  one  or  more 
letters  were  omitted  in  the  word:  e.g.  copose  for  compose, 
copletio  for  completion,  &c.  No  punctuation-marks  were  used, 
except  the  colon  and  full  point;  but  an  oblique  stroke  (/)  was 
after  a  while  introduced,  for  which  the  comma  was  finally 
substituted.     Logotypes  were  frequently  employed. 

Orthography  was  various  and  arbitrary.  Proper  names  and 
sentences  were  often  begun  with  small  letters,  as  well  as  the 
first  words  in  lines  of  poetry. 

Blanks  were  left  for  the  places  of  titles,  initial  letters,  and 
other  ornaments,  to  be  supplied  afterward  by  illuminators, 
whose  calling  did  not  long  survive  the  masterly  improvements 
made  by  the  printers  in  this  branch  of  their  art.  These  orna- 
ments were  exquisitely  fine,  and  curiously  variegated  with 
the  most  beautiful  colours,  and  even  with  gold  and  silver. 
The  margins,  likewise,  were  frequently  charged  with  a  variety 
of  figures,  of  saints,  birds,  beasts,  monsters,  flowers,  &c., 
which  sometimes  had  relation  to  the  contents  of  the  page, 
though  frequently  none  at  all.  These  embellishments  were 
often  very  costly. 

The  name  of  the  printer,  place  of  his  residence,  &c.  were 
either  omitted  or  put  at  the  end  of  the  book,  with  some  pious 
ejaculation  or  doxology. 

The  date  was  also  omitted,  or  involved  in  some  cramped 
design,  or  printed  either  at  full  length  or  in  numerical  letters, 
and  sometimes  partly  one  and  partly  the  other:  thus.  One 


1 6  PRINTING   IN  AMERICA. 

Thousand  CCCC  and  Ixxiiii;  but  always  placed  at  the  end 
of  the  book. 

There  was  no  variety  of  character,  nor  intermixture  of  Ro- 
man and  Italic,  which  were  later  inventions;  but  the  pages 
were  printed  in  a  Gothic  letter  of  the  same  size  throughout. 
Catch-words  at  the  end  of  the  foot-line  (now  generally 
abolished)  were  first  used  at  Venice,  by  Vindeline  de  Spire. 
The  inventor  of  signatures  is  said  to  have  been  Antonio 
Zarotti  of  Milan,  about  1470. 

Books  were  often  encased  in  massive  coverings,  which 
were  ornamented  with  florid  and  arabesque  designs.  Jewels 
and  precious  metals,  the  finest  stuffs,  and  the  most  gorgeous 
colours  were  sometimes  employed.  Scaliger  says,  that  his 
grandmother  had  a  printed  Psalter,  the  cover  of  which  was  two 
inches  thick.  On  the  inner  side  was  a  receptacle,  containing 
a  small  silver  crucifix,  with  the  name  of  Berenica  Codroiiia 
de  la  Scala  behind  it. 

Two  or  three  hundred  copies  of  a  work  were  considered  to 
be  a  large  edition. 


PRINTING   IN  AMERICA. 

PRINTING  was  introduced  into  America  at  Mexico  by  the 
Viceroy  Mendoza  in  1536.  The  first  book  printed  was  the 
Escala  espiritiial  de  San  'Juan  Climaco,  of  which  no  copy  is 
known  to  exist;  but  the  oldest  American  book  now  extant  is 
the  JManual  de  Adultos,  dated  1540,  of  which  only  the  last  four 
leaves  are  to  be  found  in  the  library  of  the  Cathedral  of  To- 
ledo.    The  name  of  the  earliest  printer  is  a  matter  of  question. 

Cambridge;  Massachusetts,  is  entitled  to  the  distinction  of 
having  the  first  printing-press  in  North  America,  which  was 
under  the  charge  of  Stephen  Daye.  For  this  press  the  colony 
was  mainly  indebted  to  the  Rev.  Jesse  Glover,  a  noncon- 
formist minister  possessed  of  a  considerable  estate,  who  had 
left  England  to  settle  among  his  friends  in  Massachusetts. 
Some  gentlemen  of  Amsterdam  also  "gave  towards  furnish- 
ing of  a  printing-press  with  letters,  forty-nine  pounds  and 
something  more."  This  was  about  1638.  The  first  book 
issued  was  tlie  Bay  Psahn-Book,  in  1640. 

The  first  book  issued  in  the  Middle  Colonies  was  an  Alma- 
nac, printed  by  William  bradford  in  1685,  near  Philadelphia. 


PRINTING  IN  AMERICA.  i  7 

Bradford  was  brought  out  from  England  in  1684  by  William 
Penn.  As  the  government  of  Pennsylvania  became  very 
restrictive  in  regard  to  the  press,  Bradford  in  1693  removed 
to  New  York,  and  was  appointed  printer  to  that  colony,  where 
he  established  in  1725  the  New  York  Gazette,  the  first  news- 
paper published  there.  He  died  May  23,  1752,  after  an  active 
and  useful  life  of  eighty-nine  years. <i> 

The  first  newspaper  in  America  was  the  Boston  News  Let- 
ter, which  was  first  issued  by  John  Campbell  on  Monday,  April 
24,  1704:  it  was  regularly  published  for  nearly  seventy-two 
years.  The  second  was  the  Boston  Gazette,  begun  December 
21, 1719.  The  third  was  the  American  Weekly  JSIercicry,  issued 
in  Philadelphia,  by  Andrew  Bradford,  on  December  22,  1719. 
James  Franklin,  an  elder  brother  of  Benjamin,  established  the 
New  England  Courant,  August  17,  1721. 

The  oldest  living  paper  of  the  United  States  is  the  New 
Hampshire  Gazette,  published  at  Portsmouth,  now  (Oct.  7, 
1892)  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  years  old. 

The  North  American  and  United  States  Gazette  leads  the 
existing  daily  press  of  this  country  in  point  of  antiquity. 
It  is  the  successor  of  the  Pennsylvania  Packet,  (begun  in  1771 
and  becoming  a  daily  paper  in  1784,)  and  is  still  the  chief 
commercial  journal  of  Philadelphia. 

The  first  paper-mill  in  America  was  established  near  Ger- 
mantown,  Pa.,  in  1690,  by  William  Rittenhouse.'^' 

(1)  Two  copies  of  Bradford's  Almanac  are  known  to  be  in  existence.  We  give  the 
Address  of 

THE  PRINTER  TO  THE  READERS. 

Hereby  underftand  that  after  great  charge  &  Trouble,  I  have  brought  that  great 
Art  &  Mystery  of  Printing  into  this  part  of  America;  believing  it  may  be  of 
great  fervice  to  you  in  feveral  refpects;  hoping  to  find  encouragement,  not  only  in  this 
Almanack,  but  what  elfe  1  fhall  enter  upon  for  the  ufe  &  fervice  of  the  Inhabitants  of  thefe 
Parts.  Some  irregularities  there  be  in  this  Diary,  which  I  defire  you  to  pafs  by  this  year; 
for  being  lately  come  hither,  my  materials  were  mifplaced  &  out  of  order,  whereupon  I  was 
forced  to  ufe  Figures  &  Letters  of  various  Sizes:  but  underftanding  the  want  of  some- 
thing of  this  nature,  &  being  importuned  thereto,  I  ventured  to  make  public  this;  defining 
you  to  accept  thereof;  &  by  the  next  (as  I  find  encouragement)  (hall  endeavour  to  have 
things  compleat.  And  for  the  eafe  of  Clarks,  Scriveniers,  &c.,  I  propofe  to  print  blank 
Bills,  Bonds,  Letters  of  Attorney,  Indentures,  Warrants,  etc.,  &  what  elfe  prefentsitfelf, 
wnerein  I  fhall  be  ready  to  ferve  you  ;  and  remain  your  friend. 

Philadelphia,  the  W.BRADFORD, 

loth  month,  1685. 
W  Mr.  Horatio  Gates  Jones,  of  Philadelphia,  in  his  introduction  to  Frame's 
Short  Description  of  Pennsilvania,  gives  further  interesting  particulars.     See,  also, 
Munsell's  Chronology,  &c.  of  Paper  and  Paper  Making,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1876. 


TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  EUROPE. 


TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  EUROPE. 

FOR  a  long  period  after  the  discovery  of  printing,  it  seems 
that  type-founding-,  printing,  and  binding  went  under  the 
general  term  of  printing,  and  that  printers  cast  the  types  used 
by  them,  and  printed  and  bound  the  works  executed  in  their 
establishments.  Type-founding  became  a  distinct  calling  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  A  decree  of  the  Star  Chamber, 
made  July  ii,  1637,  ordained  the  following  regulations  con- 
cerning English  founders : — 

"That  there  shall  be  four  founders  of  letters  for  printing, 
and  no  more. 

"That  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  or  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don, with  six  other  high  commissioners,  shall  supply  the  places 
of  those  four  as  they  shall  become  void. 

"  That  no  master-founder  shall  keep  above  two  apprentices 
at  one  time. 

"That  all  journeyman-founders  be  employed  by  the  mas- 
ters of  the  trade,  and  that  idle  journeymen  be  compelled  to 
work,  upon  pain  of  imprisonment  and  such  other  punishment 
as  the  court  shall  think  lit. 

"That  no  master-founder  of  letters  shall  employ  any  other 
person  in  any  work  belonging  to  the  casting  or  founding  of 
letters  than  freemen  or  apprentices  to  the  trade,  save  only  in 
pulling  off  the  knots  of  metal  hanging  at  the  end  of  the  letters 
when  they  are  first  cast;  in  which  work  every  master-founder 
may  employ  one  boy  only,  not  bound  to  the  trade." 

By  the  same  decree,  the  number  of  master-printers  in  Eng- 
land was  limited  to  twenty. 

Regulations  like  the  above  were  in  force  till  1693.  The 
"polyglot  founders,"  as  they  have  been  called,  were  suc- 
ceeded by  Joseph  Moxon  and  others.  But  the  English  were 
unable  to  compete  with  the  superior  productions  of  the  Dutch 
founders,  until  the  advent  of  William  Caslon,  who,  by  the 
beauty  and  excellence  of  his  type,  surpassed  his  Batavian 
competitors,  when  the  importation  of  foreign  type  ceased, 
and  liis  founts  were,  in  turn,  exported  to  the  Continent. 

iiy  an  act  subsequently  passed,  no  founder  was  to  cast  any 
letter  for  printing,  no  joiner  to  make  any  press,  no  smith  to 
forge  any  iron-work  for  a  press  ;  no  person  to  bring  from  j^arts 


TYPE-FOUNDING   IN  AMERICA.  19 

beyond  the  seas  any  letters  founded  or  cast  for  printing ;  nor 
any  person  to  buy  any  letters  or  any  other  materials  belong- 
ing unto  printing ;  without  application  to  the  master  and  ward- 
ens of  the  Company  of  Stationers. 


TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMERICA. 

A  FOUNDRY,  principally  for  German  type,  was  established 
at  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  about  the  year  1735,  by 
Christopher  Saur,  (or  Sower,)  a  printer,  who  executed  in  Ger- 
man the  first  quarto  Bible  printed  in  America,  as  well  as  other 
valuable  works  in  the  German  language.  Three  editions  of 
the  Bible  were  printed — viz.,  in  the  years  1743,  1763,  and  1776, 
the  latter  two  by  his  son.  In  1739,  Saur  published  a  news- 
paper in  Germantown. 

An  abortive  attempt  was  made  about  1768  to  set  up  a 
foundry  at  Boston  by  a  Mr.  Mitchelson  from  Scotland,  and 
another  in  Connecticut  in  1769  by  Abel  Buel.  In  1775,  Dr. 
Franklin  brought  from  Europe  to  Philadelphia  the  materials 
for  a  foundry;  but  little  use  of  them  was  made. 

John  Baine,  a  type-founder  of  Edinburgh,  sent  a  relative  to 
this  country  with  tools  for  a  foundry  at  the  close  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  and  soon  after  came  over  himself.  They  carried 
on  the  business  till  1790,  when  Mr.  Baine  died,  and  his  kins- 
man returned  to  Scotland. 

A  Dutch  founder,  Adam  G.  Mappa,  settled  at  New  York 
about  1787,  and  cast  Dutch  and  German  faces,  as  well  as 
Roman  styles  and  several  Oriental  alphabets.  Want  of  capital 
prevented  his  success,  and  many  of  his  matrices  passed  into 
the  possession  of  Binny  &  Ronaldson.<i> 

In  1796,  type-founding  was  commenced  in  Philadelphia  by 
Archibald  Binny  and  James  Runaidson,  natives  of  the  city 
of  Edinburgh,  where  Binny  had  carried  on  the  same  business. 
Their  assortment  was  not  extensive,  but  it  embraced  the 
essential  founts, — Brevier,  Bourgeois,  Long  Primer,  Small  Pica, 
Pica,  and  two-line  letters.  They  were  obliging  and  attentive, 
and  in  twenty  years  made  a  fortune.    They  improved  their 

(')  The  remainder  of  this  article  was  mostly  furnished  by  the  late  Mr.  George 
Bruce,  of  New  York. 


TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMERICA. 


foundry  according  to  the  increase  of  printing  and  the  conse- 
quent demands  of  the  trade,  extending  their  assortment  from 
Pearl,  of  i8o  lines  in  a  foot,  to  12-line  Pica,  having  6  lines. 
Binny  made  an  important  improvement  in  the  type-mould,  by 
which  a  caster  could  cast  6000  letters  in  a  day  with  as  much 
ease  as  he  before  could  cast  4000.'^' 

According  to  Holmes's  American  Amials,  about  200  news- 
papers were  printed  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1801, 
of  which  17  were  issued  daily,  7  three  times  a  week,  30  twice 
a  week,  and  146  weekly.  There  must  also  have  been  at  the 
same  time  as  many  as  60  offices  engaged  in  miscellaneous 
printing.  The  whole  business  had  increased  threefold  in 
eleven  years.  Another  type-foundr>'  was  put  in  successful 
operation  in  Baltimore,  about  1805,  by  Samuel  Sower  &  Co. 
It  had  in  it  some  moulds  and  matrices  which  had  been  used  by 
Christopher  Sower,  who  had  printed  in  Germantown,  near 
Philadelphia,  and  cast  his  own  types.  He  printed  with  German 
characters;  but  now  the  foundry  was  revived  with  excellent 
Roman  and  Italic  letters,  and  among  other  extraordinary  things 
it  had  the  size  called  Diamond,  with  a  smaller  face  than  had 
ever  been  cast  before.     It  was  the  smallest  type  in  the  world. 

The  demand  for  type  was  very  brisk  till  the  war  of  181 2 
commenced,  and  the  foundries  were  generally  three  or  four 
months  in  arrears  in  their  execution  of  orders. 

The  names  of  the  newspapers  published  in  the  United 
States  in  April,  1810,  are  given  in  Thomas's  History  of  Print- 
ing, and  amount  to  359,  of  which  27  were  daily  papers,  38 

")  After  the  retirement  of  Binny  &  Ronaldson,  Richard  Ronaldson  carried  on  the 
business  of  this  foundry  until  1833,  when  he  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  Lawrence 
Johnson  and  George  F.  Smith.  Mr.  Johnson,  a  man  of  great  energy  and  enterprise, 
had  (contemporaneously  with  Jedediah  Howe)  introduced  stereotyping  into  Phila- 
delphia, and  now  both  callings  were  incorporated.  Ten  years  afterward,  Mr.  Smith 
retired;  and  in  the  year  1845  Mr.  Johnson  associated  with  him  Thomas  MacKellar, 
John  F.  Smith  and  Richard  Smith,  who  had,  as  it  were,  grown  up  with  the  business. 
The  foundry  now  (juickly  grew  in  importance,  and  won  a  wide  reputation  Mr. 
Johnson  died  April  26,  i860,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  three  partners,  who,  with 
Peter  A.  Jordan,  constitiUed  the  firm  known  as  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan,  under 
whose  management  the  establishment  was  brought  to  rank  equal  with  and  excel 
most  of  the  type  foundries  in  the  world.  Mr.  Jordan  died  March  25,  1884  In  1885 
\Vm.  B.  MacKellar,  G.  Frtdk  Jordan  and  C.  V.  Huch  were  associated  with  the 
remaining  partners,  and  a  corporation  was  formed  under  the  name  of  The  Mac- 
Kellar, Smiths  &  Jordan  Company.  Their  "Typographic  Advertiser"  (begun  in  1855) 
and  Specimen  Books  are  regarded  as  unique  mechanical  and  literary  productions. 
The  height  and  body  of  the  Pica  of  this  Company  have  been  universally  adopted  in 
the  United  States  as  the  standard  of  size  for  the  American  Point  System  of  type. 


TYPE-FOUNDING  IN  AMERICA. 


were  printed  twice,  15  three  times,  and  279  once  in  a  week. 
Add  those  required  for  general  printing,  and  the  whole  num- 
ber of  offices  could  not  be  less  than  500, — being  an  increase  of 
240  in  nine  years,  and  some  of  them  using  several  thousand 
pounds  of  type  for  book-printing. 

In  181 1,  Elihu  White  established  a  type-foundry  in  New 
York.  He  had  been  long  engaged,  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Wing,  in  the  manufacture  of  printing  types  at  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, upon  a  plan  of  their  own  invention,  by  which  twenty 
or  thirty  letters  were  cast  at  once;  but,  abandoning  that 
invention,  he  adopted  the  old  plan  of  casting,  and,  having  a 
good  assortment  of  faces  and  bodies,  his  removal  to  New 
York  was  a  great  convenience  to  its  printers,  and  they  gave 
him  a  very  satisfactory  support.  But  the  principal  business 
in  type-founding  still  continued,  as  formerly,  to  be  carried  on 
in  Philadelphia. 

In  1813,  another  type-foundry  was  begun  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  by  D.  &  G.  Bruce,  principally  to  cast  types  for  their  own 
use.  They  had  carried  on  book-printing  for  seven  years,  and 
had  now  become  acquainted  with  the  stereotype  art, — Mr. 
David  Bruce  having  visited  England  in  181 2  and  acquired  it  by 
purchase  and  actual  labour.  For  ordinary  printing,  it  was  CUS' 
tomary  to  bevel  off  the  body  of  the  type  at  the  face  end,  or 
shoulder,  as  it  is  usually  called,  which  unfitted  it  for  making  a 
Strong  stereotype  plate  in  the  most  approved  way :  hence  the 
necessity  for  casting  type  expressly  for  stereotype.  Their  first 
fount  was  Bourgeois,  with  which  they  cast  two  sets  of  plates 
of  the  New  Testament,  (the  Common  School  Testament,)  and 
sold  one  of  these  to  Mathew  Carey,  of  Philadelphia,  retaining 
the  other  for  their  own  business.  But  these  were  not  com- 
pleted till  1814.  In  1815,  they  cast  the  plates  of  the  i2mo 
School  Bible,  on  Nonpareil  type,  prepared,  like  the  Bourgeois, 
at  their  own  foundry  expressly  for  stereotyping.  They  thus 
gave  the  first  stereotype  School  Testament  and  School  Bible 
to  America ;  but  not  the  first  stereotype  book.  John  Watts, 
of  England,  also  commenced  stereotyping  in  New  York  in 
1813,  and  completed  the  Westminster  Catechism  that  year,  a 
volume  of  120  pages  i2mo.  David  Bruce  invented  the  planing- 
machine  for  equalizing  the  thickness  of  stereotype  plates, 
which  is  now  used  in  every  stereotype  foundry  in  the  United 
States.     The  process  of  stereotyping    is,  however,  entirely 


TYPE-FOUNDIiWG  IN  AMERICA. 


different  from  that  of  ordinary  type-founding,  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, generally  carried  on  as  a  separate  business,  or  connected 
with  the  composing  department  of  a  printing-office.  Twenty 
compositors  and  two  proof-readers  will  furnish  full  employ- 
ment for  one  moulder,  one  caster,  and  three  finishers,  who 
will,  among  them,  complete,  on  an  average,  50  pages  of  octavo 
per  day. 

In  1818,  or  soon  after,  a  type  and  stereotype  foundry  was 
established  in  Boston,  and  another  in  Cincinnati,  principally 
through  the  enterprise  of  the  late  Elihu  White,  who,  having  the 
means  of  multiplying  matrices  with  facility,  took  this  method 
for  the  extension  of  his  business.  Others  followed  his  example, 
and  type-foundries  were  established  in  Albany,  Buffalo,  Pitts- 
burgh, Louisville,  and  St.  Louis,  with  several  additional  in 
New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  The  busi- 
ness, in  fact,  was  overdone,  and  failures  and  suppressions  took 
place,  as  competition  reduced  the  prices  of  types. 

The  mode  of  type-founding  has  within  forty  years  under- 
gone important  changes,  which  must  no  doubt  be  considered 
improvements.  First  among  them  is  the  introduction  of 
machine-casting,  in  which  a  pump  forces  the  fluid  metal  into 
the.  mould  and  matrix,  and  gives  a  sharper  outline  to  the  let- 
ter than  was  formerly  given  by  the  most  violent  throw  of  the 
caster.  The  old  practice  of  casting  a  single  type  only  at  a 
time  remains.  The  first  idea  of  this  machine  originated  with 
William  M.  Johnson,  who  obtained  a  patent  for  it  in  1828. 
Elihu  White  put  it  into  use  in  his  type-foundry,  and  per- 
severed in  using  and  trying  to  improve  it  as  long  as  he  lived; 
but  he  did  not  succeed  in  removing  the  greatest  fault,  which 
was  a  hollowness  in  the  body  of  the  types  cast  by  it,  that  in- 
clined them  to  sink  under  the  pressure  of  the  printing-press. 
The  first  successful  type-casting  machine  was  invented  by 
David  Bruce,  Jr.,  of  New  York,  and  was  patented  March  17, 
1838.  The  patent  was  sold  to  George  Bruce,  and  the  ma- 
chines were  used  by  him  until  1845.  David  Bruce  meanwhile 
patented  another  machine  in  1843,  which,  with  new  improve- 
ments, patented  two  years  later,  gave  entire  satisfaction,  and 
is  now  in  general  use  in  American  foundries.  By  Bruce's 
machine,  three  times  the  quantity  of  type  that  was  cast  by 
Binny  &  Ronaldson's  improved  mould  is  now  cast  in  a  given 
time,  and  nearly  five  times  the  quantity  that  was  cast  by  the 


TYPE-FOUNDING   IN  AMERICA. 


23 


common  hand-mould  eighty  years  ago.  This  improvement 
has  passed  into  Europe,  and  been  adopted  by  most  of  the 
German  type-founders ;  but  in  Great  Britain  for  some  time  it 
found  little  favour.  A  so-called  "automatic  machine,"  for 
casting  and  finishing  type,  invented  by  Johnson  &  Atkinson, 
is  in  operation  in  London;  but  its  rate  of  production  seems 
to  be  less  than  that  of  the  American  machine,  while,  from  its 
multiform  operations,  the  proportion  of  imperfect  type  turned 
out  must  of  necessity  be  considerably  more. 

The  protection  now  afibrded  by  the  patent  laws  having 
checked  the  piratical  production  of  matrices  by  electrotyping, 
(except  in  plain  faces,  a  practice  still  pursued  by  unprincipled 
type-founders,)  the  leading  founders  in  this  country  have 
been  encouraged  to  produce  types  of  new  styles  which  in 
beauty  and  ingenuity  surpass  those  of  foreign  origin. 

There  are  now  three  type-foundries  in  Boston,  seven  in  New 
York,  one  in  Buffalo,  four  in  Philadelphia,  four  in  Baltimore, 
two  in  Cincinnati,  four  in  Chicago,  two  in  Milwaukee,  two  in 
St.  Louis,  one  in  Richmond,  one  in  St.  Paul,  one  in  Cleveland, 
one  in  Kansas  City,  and  three  in  California — in  all,  thirty-six. 
Some  of  these  foundries  not  only  supply  the  printers  of  the 
United  States,  but  most  of  the  printers  in  Canada,  some  in  the 
British  West  India  Islands,  Mexico,  South  America,  China, 
India  and  Australasia.  American  type,  in  quality,  style,  and 
finish,  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  made  in  Europe. 

The  following  are  the  prices  at  which  plain  types  have 
been  sold  for  the  last  seventy-five  years,  given  at  ten  different 
dates,  and  naming  only  the  principal  and  most  useful  sizes : — 


1806. 

mn. 

1819. 

18Z1. 

18S1. 

18hl. 

18G0. 

1866. 

1816. 

180S. 

Pica  .   .    . 

I0.44 

;?o.55 

$0.44 

go.  42 

$0.36 

$0.38 

Jo.  32 

#0.56 

;Jo.46 

$0.32 

Small  Pica 

48 

•58 

.48 

46 

■.38 

.40 

M 

..58 

.48 

•34 

Lg.  Primer 

56 

.66 

.56 

50 

.40 

\" 

36 

.62 

•50 

..36 

Bourgeois 

66 

.76 

.66 

58 

.46 

.46 

40 

.66 

•  52 

.38 

Brevier .   . 

76 

.86 

.76 

70 

•  56 

.54 

44 

.70 

•55 

.42 

Minion  .    . 

I 

03 

1. 13 

1. 00 

88 

.70 

.66 

48 

.76 

.S8 

.46 

Nonpareil 

I 

40 

1-75 

1.40 

I 

20 

.90 

.84 

S8 

.84 

.66 

•52 

Agate    .    . 

I 

44 

1. 10 

1.08 

72 

1. 00 

.76 

.60 

Pearl.   .    . 

I 

7.5 

1.40 

1.40 

I 

08 

1.40 

1.20 

1.20 

Diamond  . 

I 

60 

1.80 

1.62 

1.60 

24  STEREOTYPIXG. 


STEREOTYPING. 

STEREOTYPING  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  J.  Van 
der  Mey,  in  Holland,  about  1698.  A  quarto  Bible  and  some 
other  books  were  printed  by  him  from  plates,  which  were 
formed  by  soldering  the  bottoms  of  common  type"  together. 
William  Ged,  of  Edinburgh,  discovered  the  present  mode  in 
1725,  and  stereotyped  parts  of  the  Bible  and  Prayer-Book. 
He  encountered  malicious  opposition,  and  the  business  was 
abandoned,  the  new  method  dying  with  the  inventor.  About 
1745,  Benjamin  Mecom,  a  nephew  of  Dr.  Franklin,  cast  plates 
for  a  number  of  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament.  Dr.  Alex- 
ander Tilloch,  of  Glasgow,  re-discovered  the  art  in  1781.  Ste- 
reotyping gradually  spread,  and  soon  efitected  a  considerable 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  books.  The  arguments  that  were 
advanced  against  its  utility  have  a  ridiculous  look  at  the 
present  day,  when  almost  everj-  important  work  is  stereotyped 
or  electrotyped. 

Matter  for  stereotyping  is  set  with  high  spaces  and  quad- 
rates. The  forms  must  be  small,  containing  about  two  pages 
of  common  octavo.  A  slug  type-high  is  put  above  the  top  line 
and  another  below  the  foot  line  of  each  page,  to  protect  the 
ends  of  the  plates  from  injury  when  they  are  passed  through 
the  shaving-machine.  Beveled  slugs,  in  height  equal  to  the 
shoulder  of  the  type,  are  placed  on  both  sides  and  between 
the  pages,  to  form  the  flange  by  which  the  plate  is  to  be  clasped 
by  the  hooks  of  the  printing-block. 

Before  the  form  is  sent  into  the  foundry,  the  type  must  be 
carefully  compared  with  the  proof,  to  detect  any  errors  which 
may  have  been  left  uncorrected.  Care  must  be  taken  to  lock 
up  the  form  perfectly  square  and  quite  tight,  to  prevent  the 
types  from  being  pulled  out  when  the  mould  is  raised  from 
the  pages.  It  must  be  evenly  planed  down,  and  no  ink  or 
dirt  or  incrustations  from  the  ley  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
surface. 

The  face  of  the  type  being  clean  and  dry,  and  the  bottoms 
free  from  particles  of  dirt,  the  form  is  laid  on  a  clean  mould- 
ing-stone, and  brushed  over  with  sweet-oil,  which  must  be 
laid  on  as  thinly  as  possible,  care  being  taken  that  the  entire 
surface  of  the  types  is  covered.     A  moulding-frame,  with  a 


STEREOTYPING.  25 


screw  at  each  corner,  (called  a  flask,)  and  fitting  neatly  to  the 
form,  is  next  placed  around  it. 

The  material  for  moulding  is  finely  ground  gypsum,  nine 
parts  of  which  are  mixed  with  about  seven  parts  of  water,  and 
well  stirred  up.  A  small  quantity  of  the  liquid  mixture  is 
poured  over  the  pages,  and  gently  pressed  into  the  counter 
of  the  types  with  a  small  roller,  for  the  purpose  of  expelling 
confined  air;  after  which,  the  remainder  of  the  gypsum  is 
poured  in,  until  the  mould  is  somewhat  higher  than  the  upper 
edge  of  the  flask.  In  a  few  minutes  the  mixture  sets,  and 
the  upper  side  is  smoothed  over  with  a  steel  straight-edge. 
In  about  ten  minutes  the  mould  is  gently  raised  by  means  of 
the  screws  at  the  corners  of  the  flask ;  and,  after  being  nicely 
trimmed  at  the  sides,  and  nicked  on  the  surface-edges  to 
make  openings  for  the  metal  to  run  in,  it  is  placed  on  a  shelf 
in  an  oven,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  the  moisture  has 
quite  evaporated. 

The  casting-pans  may  be  large  enough  to  hold  three  or  four 
moulds.  The  dried  moulds  are  placed  in  a  pan  face  down- 
ward, upon  a  movable  iron  plate  called  a  floater.  The  cover 
of  the  casting-pan,  which  has  a  hole  at  each  corner  for  the 
passage  of  the  metal,  is  then  clamped  to  it,  and  lifted  by  a 
movable  crane  and  gently  lowered  into  the  metal-pot, — con- 
taining, it  may  be,  a  thousand  pounds  of  liquid  metal, — till  the 
metal  begins  to  flow  slowly  in  at  the  corners.  When  the  pan 
is  filled,  it  is  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  The  metal  should 
be  hot  enough  to  light  a  piece  of  brown  paper  held  in  it. 
After  being  immersed  eight  or  ten  minutes,  the  pan  is  steadily 
drawn  out  by  means  of  the  crane,  and  swung  over  to  the  cool- 
ing-trough, into  which  it  is  lowered  and  placed  upon  a  stone 
so  as  just  to  touch  the  water,  in  order  that  the  metal  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  may  cool  first.  The  metal  contracts  while 
cooling,  and  the  caster  occasionally  pours  in  a  small  quantity 
at  the  corners  from  a  ladle,  till  it  will  take  no  more.  It  may 
be  here  remarked  that  some  stereotypers  do  not  dry  the 
moulds,  but  immerse  them  in  a  green  condition  into  the  metal. 

The  plates  are  carefully  removed  from  the  solid  mass 
which  comes  out  of  the  pan,  and  the  plaster  is  washed  from 
the  surface.  If,  after  examination,  the  face  is  good  and 
sharply  set,  the  plates  are  passed  over  to  a  picker,  who  re- 
moves any  slight  defects  arising  from  an  imperfection  of  the 


26  STEREOTYPING. 


mould.  They  are  then  trimmed  and  passed  through  the  shav- 
ing-machine, till  all  are  brought  to  an  equal  thickness.  The 
flanges  are  neatly  side-planed,  and  the  plates  are  then  boxed, 
ready  for  the  printing-press. 

In  England,  the  plates  are  merely  turned  on  the  back,  and 
consequently  vary  in  thickness.  This  must  be  a  source  of  con- 
tinual expense  and  annoyance  to  the  pressman.  The  flanges, 
besides,  are  very  imperfectly  made, — so  imperfectly  that  they 
cannot  be  used  on  American  printing-blocks;  and  English 
plates,  when  imported  into  this  country,  are  therefore  sent  to 
a  foundry  here,  to  be  brought  to  an  equal  thickness  and  to  be 
properly  side-planed.  An  order  given  some  years  ago  by  an 
English  printer  for  a  set  of  American  printing-blocks  was 
afterward  countermanded,  on  account  of  the  prejudice  against 
the  introduction  of  new  things. 

Several  methods  of  stereotyping  are  now  practised.  Many 
of  the  leading  newspapers  of  England  and  America  are  printed 
from  stereotype  plates  cast  in  moulds  made  of  prepared  paper: 
this  mode,  however,  yields  very  inferior  plates,  quite  unfit  for 
fine  books. 

Another  method,  styled  the  "mud-process,"  is  by  spreading 
a  thin  coating  of  pulverized  soapstone  and  gypsum  over  an  iron 
plate,  and  a  mould  is  then  obtained  by  pressing  the  coated 
face  against  a  page  of  type.  Several  of  these  mould-plates 
are  then  set  on  end  in  an  iron  bo.x,  separated  from  one 
another  by  a  wire  of  the  thickness  of  the  stereotype  desired, 
and  hot  metal  is  poured  in.  This  is  a  very  expeditious  pro- 
cess, though  not  so  good  as  the  old  method. 

In  1804,  before  the  introduction  of  stereotyping  into  this 
country,  I\Iathew  Carey,  the  well-known  enterprising  publisher 
in  Philadelpliia,  had  the  Bible  in  quarto  set  up  entire,  and  regu- 
larly imposed  in  chases,  to  print  from  at  convenience,  according 
to  the  demand  for  the  volume.  The  type  was  cast  by  Binny 
&  Ronaldson.  Stereotyping  would  have  saved  much  of  the 
large  outlay  required  to  carry  out  the  scheme,  which,  never- 
theless, even  vmder  these  circumstances,  was  doubtless  highly 
remunerative.  The  weight  of  type  must  have  amounted  to 
25,000  pounds,  to  say  nothing  of  the  number  of  chases  and 
column-rules  required. 


ELECTROTYPING  AND  LITHOGRAPHY.  27 


ELECTROTYPING. 

STEREOTYPING  has  been  superseded  by  the  process  of 
electrotyping,  as  described  below. 

The  pages,  after  being  delicately  polished  with  plumbago, 
are  laid  in  a  press ;  a  pan  of  prepared  wax,  warmed,  is  placed 
over  them  and  pressed  down  into  the  counter  of  the  types. 
The  wax  mould  is  then  dusted  with  plumbago,  and  suspended 
in  the  electric  bath.  On  this,  in  a  few  hours,  is  deposited  a 
thin  shell  of  copper,  which,  after  being  coated  with  tin  solder, 
is  backed  up  with  metal  to  the  usual  thickness  of  a  stereotype 
plate. 

The  same  care  in  preparing  the  pages  for  electrotyping  must 
be  observed  as  for  stereotyping.  For  stereotyping,  high  slugs 
are  placed  only  at  the  top  and  foot  of  the  page;  but,  for 
electrotyping,  they  must  be  set  around  on  all  sides,  and  the 
bevelled  flange  must  be  afterward  made  by  side-planing. 

LITHOGRAPHY. 

THIS  is  the  art  of  printing,  by  a  chemical  process,  from 
designs  made  with  a  greasy  material  upon  stone.  It  was 
discovered  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  by 
Alois  Senefelder,  an  actor  of  Munich,  Bavaria,  whose  patience 
and  perseverance  under  the  most  disadvantageous  circum- 
stances were  truly  remarkable  and  praiseworthy.  Differing 
from  all  other  methods  of  printing,  the  impressions  are  ob- 
tained from  a  level  surface. 

The  stpne  best  calculated  for  lithographic  purposes  is  a 
sort  of  calcareous  slate  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
in  Bavaria,  the  finest  being  found  near  Munich.  A  good 
stone  is  porous,  yet  brittle,  of  a  pale  yellowish  drab,  and 
sometimes  of  a  gray  neutral  tint.  The  stones  are  formed 
into  slabs  from  one  and  a-half  to  three  inches  in  thickness.  To 
prepare  them  for  use,  two  stones  are  placed  face  to  face  with 
some  fine  sifted  sand  between  them,  and  then  are  rubbed 
together  with  a  circular  motion,  to  produce  the  requisite 
granulation,  which  is  made  finer  or  coarser  to  suit  the  purpose 
of  the  artist. 

The  principal  agents  used  for  making  designs  on  stone  are 


28  LITHOGRAPHY. 


called  lithographic  chalk  and  lithographic  ink.  They  are 
composed  of  tallow,  virgin  wax,  hard  tallow  soap,  shellac, 
sometimes  a  little  mastic  or  copal,  and  enough  lampblack  to 
impart  a  colour  to  the  mass.  These  ingredients  are  put  into 
an  iron  sauce-pan,  and  exposed  to  a  strong  fire  till  the  mass 
is  in  a  state  of  ignition.  When  the  quantity  is  reduced  one- 
half,  the  pan  is  carefully  covered,  or  put  into  water  to  ex- 
tinguish the  flame  and  cool  the  mixture.  After  being  well 
worked  up,  it  is  formed  into  small  cakes  or  sticks.  The 
ingredients  are  the  same  in  the  chalk  and  the  ink,  but  the 
proportions  are  varied,  and  a  little  Venice  turpentine  is  often 
added  to  the  latter.  The  chalk  is  used  in  a  dry  state ;  but  the 
ink  is  dissolved  by  rubbing  in  water,  and  is  used  in  a  pen  or 
with  a  camel-hair  pencil.  The  presence  of  soap  renders  it 
soluble  in  water. 

The  artist  completes  a  drawing  with  the  chalk  upon  a 
grained  stone  as  he  would  make  a  drawing  in  pencil  or  chalk 
upon  paper.  If  while  in  this  state  a  wet  sponge  were  passed 
over  the  face  of  the  stone,  the  drawing  would  wash  off.  To 
prevent  this,  and  to  make  it  capable  of  yielding  impressions,  a 
weak  solution  of  nitrous  acid  is  poured  over  it,  which  unites 
with  and  neutralizes  the  alkali  or  soap  contained  in  the  chalk, 
and  renders  it  insoluble  in  water.  After  this,  the  usual  course 
is  to  float  a  solution  of  gum  over  the  whole  face  of  the  stone ; 
and,  when  this  is  taken  off,  the  drawing  is  no  longer  removable 
by  the  application  of  a  wet  sponge,  because  the  chalk  is  now 
insoluble.  The  stone  is  now  ready  for  the  printer,  who  ob- 
tains impressions  by  the  following  process. 

Having  damped  the  surface  of  the  stone  equally  with  a 
sponge  filled  with  water  which  has  been  slightly  tinctured 
by  acid,  the  printer  finds  that  the  water  has  been  imbibed 
by  only  those  parts  of  the  stone  which  are  not  occupied  by 
the  drawing,  which,  being  greasy,  repels  the  water  and  re- 
mains dry.  A  roller  covered  with  ink  is  now  passed  over 
the  stone,  which  will  not  even  be  soiled  where  it  is  wet,  from 
the  antipathy  of  oil  to  water.  But  the  parts  occupied  by  the 
drawing,  being  dry  and  greasy,  liave  an  affinity  for  the  print- 
ing-ink, which,  therefore,  leaves  the  roller  and  attaches  itself 
to  the  drawing.  In  this  state  it  is  said  to  be  charged  or  rolled 
in.    A  sheet  of  damped  paper  is  then  put  over  it,  and,  the 


LITHOGRAPHY.  29 


whole  being  passed  through  a  press,  the  printing-ink  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  stone  to  the  paper,  and  the  impression  is 
obtained.  Great  nicety  is  requisite  in  the  preparation  of  all 
the  agents  employed  in  this  art,  and  in  the  process  of  printing 
as  well  as  in  making  the  drawing  on  the  stone. 

The  most  important  application  of  this  process  is  in  the 
production  of  copies  of  coloured  drawings  and  paintings, — a 
process  known  as  chrojiio-Iiihography.  The  object  here  being 
to  produce  as  nearly  as  possible  fac-similes  in  colour,  touch, 
and  texture,  as  well  as  in  drawing  and  light  and  shadow,  of 
pictures  from  the  pencils  of  painters  of  the  highest  standing, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  employ  a  large  number  of 
stones,  in  order  to  produce  the  almost  infinite  varieties  of 
tints  which  are  found  united  in  a  single  picture,— every  stone 
giving  a  separate  impression  in  its  own  particular  colour  or 
tint.  The  mode  of  procedure  is  somewhat  as  follows.  First, 
an  outline  of  the  entire  subject  is  made  by  means  of  transfer 
paper,  or  otherwise,  on  a  stone  which  is  called  the  outline  or 
keystone  of  the  work.  This  stone  yields  impressions  which 
are  transferred  as  guides  to  all  the  other  stones.  On  a  second 
and  third  stone  which  serve  as  the  basis  of  the  print  the 
general  effect  of  the  drawing  is  washed  in,  and  from  these 
are  printed  what  may  be  called  the  chiaroscuro,  in  a  faint 
tint  of  sepia  and  of  a  neutral  colour  or  gray, — corresponding, 
in  fact,  very  nearly  to  the  neutral  or  dead  colouring  of  a 
water-colour  drawing  in  the  method  adopted  by  the  early 
water-colour  painters.  The  stones  which  follow  are  each 
charged  with  a  particular  colour  or  tint,  and  each  leaves  its 
impression  on  only  a  particular  portion  of  the  print, — one 
stone  printing  only  the  parts  which  are  intended  to  be  yellow 
or  a  modification  of  yellow,  another  red,  another  blue,  and 
so  on.  Other  stones  charged  in  parts  with  grays  or  second- 
ary colours  serve  to  blend  and  harmonize  the  crude  colours; 
others  follow  which  modify  these;  and,  finally,  one  gives  the 
sharp  dark  touches,  and  is  usually  followed  by  another  which 
supplies  a  sort  of  glaze  or  finishing  wash,  and  subdues  and 
harmonizes  the  whole.  Of  course,  we  have  merely  indicated 
the  general  method.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  sequence 
of  the  colours  in  the  printing,  the  special  quality  and  strength 
to  be  given  to  each  particular  tint,  the  effect  to  be  produced 


30  LITHOGRAPHY. 

by  their  super-position,  and  many  other  particulars,  have  all 
to  be  taken  into  account  in  planning  the  arrangement  of  the 
colours  on  the  stones; — since  a  sequence  in  some  respects  dif- 
ferent, and  an  entirely  different  modification  of  colours,  have 
to  be  employed  for  the  works  of  most  artists ;  and  it  happens 
that  much  of  the  colour  on  each  of  the  earlier  stones  is 
covered  by  that  of  succeeding  stones,  and  that  thus  only  can 
the  broken  tints  of  the  original  be  imitated.  It  is,  in  fact, 
only  by  watching  the  progress  of  a  print  through  all  its 
stages  that  any  clear  idea  can  be  obtained  of  the  beauty  and 
accuracy  of  the  whole  process,  of  the  prevision  that  must 
be  exercised,  and  of  the  skill,  care,  and  taste  required  at 
every  step  to  carry  it  to  a  successful  termination.  For  some 
of  the  more  elaborate  prints,  from  thirty  to  forty  stones  have 
been  required  to  produce  a  finished  print.  And  in  order  to 
produce  this  print,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  each  sheet 
of  paper  has  to  be  passed  as  many  times  through  the  press 
as  there  are  stones,  since  each  stone  imprints  upon  it  only  its 
own  particular  section  of  the  work.  Of  course,  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  the  stones,  does  the  difficulty 
increase  of  making  the  work  upon  each  fall  exactly  upon  its 
proper  place  in  the  general  design;  for,  if  any  one  were 
misplaced  only  the  fiftieth  of  an  inch,  the  drawing  and  colour 
of  the  whole  would  be  disturbed.  Hence  it  is  found  neces- 
sary to  arrange  the  register,  or  adjustment  of  the  stones,  with 
the  utmost  care  and  precision,  and  to  exercise  the  most 
careful  supervision  in  the  printing,  since  the  sheet  of  paper 
expands  considerably  in  passing  through  the  press,  and  has  to 
be  dried  and  re-damped  before  it  can  be  passed  through  again. 
I5ut  practically  this  is  all  accomplished  with  seeming  ease, 
and  a  large  and  most  complex  subject  will  be  found,  when 
the  last  stage  has  been  reached,  to  bear  the  most  minute 
scrutiny;  and  the  result,  even  when  the  copy  is  placed  along- 
side the  original,  will  surprise  and  delight  equally  those  who 
have  followed  the  work  through  its  several  steps  and  those 
who  may  only  examine  the  completed  work. 

Of  late,  many  chromos  have  been  beautifully  printed  from 
prepared  blocks  on  an  ordinary  cylinder-press. 


ENGRA  VING. 


31 


ENGRAVING. 

THE  invention  of  wood  engraving  has  been  claimed  for 
the  Chinese,  whose  books  have  certainly  been  printed 
from  engraved  wood  blocks  for  ages.  It  is  not,  however, 
until  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  we  find  any 
evidence  of  the 
existence  of  wood 
engraving  as  we 
now  understand  it. 
It  is  probable  that 
Italy  was  the  first 
European  country 
to  make  engrav- 
ings, but  only  for 
printing  playing- 
cards.  Holland 
and  Germany 
soon  applied  the 
art  to  better  ends. 
The  earliest  print 
of  which  an}'  cer- 
tain information 
can  be  obtained  is 
in  the  collection  of 
Earl  Spencer.  It 
was  discovered  in 
one  of  the  most 
ancient  convents 
of  Germany, — the 
Chartreuse  of 
Buxheim,  near  Memmingen  in  Bavaria, — pasted  within  the 
cover  of  a  Latin  MS. ;  it  represents  Saint  Christopher  carrying 
the  infant  Saviour  across  the  sea,  and  is  dated  1423.  We  give 
a  reduced  fac-simile  of  this  curious  engraving.  The  inscrip- 
tion at  the  bottom  has  been  thus  translated : — 

In  whichever  day  thou  seest  the  likeness  of  St.  Christopher, 

In  that  same  day  thou  wilt,  at  least  from  death,  no  evil  blow  incur.— 1423. 


32 


ENGRA  VING. 


Shortly  afterward,  a  series  of  books  printed  entirely  from 
wood  engravings,  called  block-books,  were  issued.  The  most 
important  of  them  were  the  Apoca/ypsis,  si'u  Historia  Sancti 
yo/iainiis ;    the   Historia    Virginis   ex    Cantico    Caiiticorian  ; 

and  the  Biblia  Paupermn,  the 
last  containing  representations 
of  some  of  the  principal  pas- 
sages of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  with  explanatory 
texts.  The  illustrations  seem 
to  be  drawn  with  a  supreme 
contempt  for  perspective  and 
proportion,  but  bear  evidence 
of  the  draperies  and  hands 
and  faces  having  been  care- 
fully studied.  The  above  is  a 
copy  of  one  of  the  cuts  in  the 
Apocalypsis.  It  represents  St. 
Jolm  preaching  to  three  men 
and  a  woman,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion :  ''  Co)n<ersi  ah  idolis,  per 
prcdicatio7iem  bcati  Johannis^ 
Drusiana  et  cetcri,''  (By  the 
l^reaching  of  St.  John,  Drusi- 
ana  and  (jtliers  are  witluirawn  from  their  idols.)    The  adjoining 


ENGRA  VI NG.  33 


cut,  from  the  Biblia  Panperinn,  is  curious  as  showing  the 
general  manner  of  representing  the  creation  of  Eve  during 
the  fifteenth  century.  Both  have  the  appearance  of  careful 
drawings  "spoiled  in  the  engraving."  Previous  to  the  inven- 
tion of  movable  types,  whole  books  of  text  were  also  en- 
graved on  wood,  and  the  impressions  were  evidently  taken 
by  rubbing  on  the  back  of  the  paper,  instead  of  a  steady 
pressure,  as  in  the  printing-press,  the  ink  used  being  some 
kind  of  distemper  colour. 

The  wood  to  be  engraved  on  is  carefully  selected,  and  cut 
up  into  transverse  slices  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  This 
is  done  by  circular  saws,  which  are  necessarily  very  rigid,  so 
as  to  insure  good  even  cuts. 

After  being  cut,  the  slices  are  placed  in  racks  something 
like  plate-racks,  and  thoroughly  seasoned  by  slow  degrees  in 
gradually  heated  rooms.  When  sufficiently  seasoned  they  are 
reduced  to  parallelograms  of  various  sizes,  the  outer  portion 
of  the  circular  section  near  the  bark  being  cut  away,  and  all 
defective  wood  rejected;  such,  for  instance,  as  knots,  irregu- 
lar grain,  as  that  resulting  from  the  position  of  branches, 
which  are  indicated  by  light-coloured  markings  in  the  wood, 
known  in  the  trade  as  "comets,"  from  their  resemblance  in 
shape  to  those  fiery  bodies.  They  are  softer  than  the  sur- 
rounding wood,  and  consequently  do  not  cut  well  with  the 
graver;  therefore  much  care  and  a  practised  eye  are  needed 
in  selecting  suitable  wood.  A  section  of  boxwood  almost 
always  exhibits  parts  of  widely  different  values ;  the  more  so 
as  it  deviates  from  the  circle  in  form,  for  then  the  annual  rings 
are  compressed,  and  consequently  closer  on  one  side  than  on 
the  other,  the  side  with  the  wide  open  rings  being  usually  far 
inferior  in  value  to  the  denser  and  smaller  side. 

In  former  times,  engravers'  blocks  were  cut  parallel  with 
the  grain,  the  present  system  of  cutting  them  across  the  grain 
being  introduced  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  In 
the  preparation  of  a  block,  say  for  a  newspaper  plate,  the 
parallelograms  before  spoken  of  are  assorted  as  to  size  and 
fitted  together  at  the  back  by  brass  bolts  and  nuts.  So  ac- 
curately do  the  edges  of  the  wood  fit  together,  that  after  the 
artist  has  finished  his  drawing  on  the  smooth  face  of  this 
compound  block,  the  screws  and  bolts  are  loosened,  and  the 
pieces  separated  and  given  to  several  men  to  engrave  the 
design ;  all  that  is  needed  after  they  have  finished  their  work 


34 


ENGRA  VING. 


being  to  fit  the  pieces  togetlier  and  screw  them  up  again, 
when  they  form  one  engraved  block  ready  for  the  printing- 
press. 

Turkey  boxwood,  from  a  region  of  country  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Black  Sea,  is  used  for  fine  engravings.  The  best  is  of 
a  delicate  yellow  colour  free  from  spots  or  "eyes,"  and  cuts 
smoothly  without  crumbling  or  tearing. 

The  tools  or  gravers  necessary  in  wood-engraving  are  of 
three  kinds, — viz.,  gravers  proper  {a) ;  tint  tools  {b) ;  and 
scoopers,  or  cutting-out  tools,  for  clearing  out  the  larger 
pieces  {c).  They  are  arranged  in  different  sizes,  to  suit  the 
various  portions  of  the  work.(i) 


A  ^  L\  k 


--b 


According  to  Vasari,  the  important  discovery  of  chalco- 
graphy or  engraving  on  brass  or  copper  was  made  by  Tom- 
maso  Finiguerra,  a  Florentine  goldsmith  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, who  lived  from  1400  to  1460.  The  manner  in  which  he 
made  this  discovery  is  thus  stated  by  the  Rev.  T.  F.  Dibdin : — 

"Of  engraving  upon  copper,  tlie  earliest  known  impres- 
sion is  that  executed  by  one  Tommaso  Finiguerra,  a  gold- 
smith of  Florence,  with  the  date  of  1460  upon  it.  One  of 
the  following  circumstances  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise 
to  the  discovery.  Finiguerra  chanced  to  cast,  or  let  fall,  a 
piece  of  copper,  engraved  and  filled  with  ink,  into  melted 
sulphur;  and,  observing  that  the  exact  impression  of  his 
work  was  left  on  the  sulphur,  he  repeated  the  experiment 
on  moistened  paper,  rolling  it  gently  with  a  roller.  This 
origin  has  been  admitted  by  Lord  Walpole  and  Mr.  Land- 
seer;  but  another  has  been  also  mentioned  by  Huber.  'It 
is  reported,'  says  he,  'that  a  washerwoman  left  some  linen 
upon  a  plate  or  dish  on  which  Finiguerra  had  just  been  en- 
graving, and  that  an  impression  of  the  subject  engraved, 
however  imperfect,  came  off  upon  the  linen,  occasioned  by 
its  weight  and  moistness.'" 

W  Chambers's  Encyclopedia. 


PHO  TO-ENGRA  VING.  3  5 


PHOTO-ENGRAVING. 

PHOTO-ENGRAVINGS  are  produced  by  means  of  pho- 
tography. It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  experiments  in 
photographic  engraving  gave  rise  to  photography  itself.  The 
aim  of  Nic^phore  Niepce,  when  he  began  his  researches  in 
1813,  was  not  only  to  fix  the  image  obtained  by  the  camera 
obscura  on  a  plate  of  metal,  but  to  convert  this  plate  into 
an  engraving  which  could  be  used  on  a  printing-press.  His 
early  death  prevented  his  perfecting  the  process  to  which  he 
had  devoted  much  time  and  study. 

Three  distinct  methods  of  photo-engraving  are  employed 
in  the  United  States,  viz. :  swelled  gelatine,  photo-etching, 
and  wash-out.     The  latter  is  known  as  photo-electrotyping. 

The  first  steps  to  produce  a  plate  by  any  of  these  processes 
are  exactly  alike,  i.  e.  a  perfectly  sharp  negative,  either  in  line 
or  stipple,  must  be  produced.  If  the  copy  furnished  is  a 
wood-cut,  steel  or  lithographic  print,  in  which  the  lines  are 
absolutely  black  on  white  paper  or  card,  the  negative  is  made 
direct  and  no  drawing  is  necessary,  unless  a  very  great  reduc- 
tion is  required,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  a  drawing, 
the  lines  of  which  are  made  open  enough  to  stand  the  neces- 
sary reduction.  Where  the  copy  furnished  is  a  photograph, 
or  wash  drawing,  it  is  first  photographed  one  half  larger,  or, 
where  fine  work  is  desired,  twice  the  size  the  plate  required. 
In  cases  where  exceptionally  fine  work  is  required  it  is  even 
made  three  times  the  size.  The  photograph  thus  obtained 
is  technically  termed  a  silver  print,  and  is  an  untoned  print  on 
plain  paper.  On  this  silver  print  the  artist  makes  his  drawing, 
using  the  best  India  ink,  which  must  be  so  black  that  the  finest 
hair-line,  when  examined  through  a  magnifying  glass,  appears 
absolutely  jet  black.  After  the  drawing  is  made,  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  is  poured  over  it,  and 
quickly  washed  under  the  tap,  leaving  the  drawing  on  perfectly 
white  paper.  The  artist  then  does  whatever  retouching  may 
be  necessary,  and  the  drawing  is  ready  to  be  photographed. 
The  advantages  of  this  method  of  drawing  are  apparent. 
The  artist,  being  able  to  work  directly  on  the  enlarged  photo- 
graph of  the  object,  obtains  absolutely  correct  outlines  and 
detail.  The  drawing,  when  finished,  is  sent  to  the  gallery, 
where  it  is  photographed  to  the  required  size  of  the  plate.    The 

4 


PHOTO-ENGRA  VI NG. 


focus  of  the  camera  is  carefully  adjusted  with  the  aid  of  a 
focusing  glass,  so  that  the  negative  resulting  will  be  perfectly 
sharp.  This  must  be  carefully  done,  for  unless  the  negative 
be  sharp  a  perfect  plate  cannot  be  obtained  by  any  process. 
Tlie  sensitized  collodion  plate  is  exposed  in  the  camera  from 
one  to  six  minutes,  after  which  it  is  taken  again  to  the  dark 
room,  developed,  and  fixed.  It  is  then  intensified  until  the 
portions  representing  the  whites  of  the  picture  are  perfectly 
opaque.  Up  to  this  point  all  the  processes  are  alike,  and 
the  differences  from  here  will  be  noted. 

If  the  plate  is  to  be  produced  by  the  swelled  gelatine  "process, 
the  negative  is  varnished  and  sent  to  the  gelatine  room.  Here 
the  gelatine  is  dissolved  and  the  sensitized  solution  of  bichro- 
mate of  potash  is  added,  and  it  is  flowed  on  plate  glass,  then 
placed  in  a  drying  box,  where  a  current  of  air  is  continually 
passed  over  it.  When  the  gelatine  is  dry  it  is  placed  in  a  print- 
ing frame,  in  close  contact  with  the  negative,  and  exposed  to 
the  light.  On  removing  the  negative  the  picture  is  plainly 
seen  on  the  gelatine,  the  action  of  the  light  having  changed 
the  color  of  the  exposed  portions  of  the  gelatine,  besides  ren- 
dering those  parts  insoluble,  while  the  parts  protected  from 
the  action  of  the  light,  by  the  opacity  of  the  negative,  remain 
soluble,  and  are  swelled  up  by  immersion  in  cold  water.  The 
gelatine  is  then  an  exact  opposite  of  tlie  plate,  the  whiles 
being  represented  by  the  raised  portions,  f'rom  this  mould, 
or  relief,  a  cast  is  made  in  a  preparation  of  wax  or  plaster, 
when  it  is  ready  for  the  stereotyper. 

For  the  wash-out  or  photo-electrotype  process,  the  nega- 
tive, when  dry,  is  not  varnished,  but  is  first  coated  with  a 
rubber  solution  and  then  with  plain  collodion,  after  wliich  it 
is  immersed  in  a  dish  of  acetic  acid  for  about  five  minutes, 
when  it  is  stripped  from  the  glass  and  turned  over.  It  is  then 
what  is  termed  a  reversed  negative.  The  method  of  pre|:)aring 
the  gelatine  is  very  much  the  same  as  for  the  swelled  pro- 
cess, with  the  exception  that  it  is  cooked  for  about  forty-eight 
hours,  and  with  the  addition  of  several  preparations  which 
are  introduced  at  the  time  of  sensitizing,  to  make  it  easily 
washed  out.  The  nei;ative  is  exposed  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  before,  but  the  time  of  exposure  is  generally 
less.  After  being  taken  from  the  printing  frame  the  gelatine 
is  gently  scrubbed  witli  a  fine  brush,  and  kept  in  tepid  water 


PHO  TO-ENGRA  VI NG.  3  7 


until  a  very  slight  relief  is  obtained.  It  is  then  immersed  in 
alcohol  for  a  few  seconds,  and  dried  with  a  cloth,  when  it  is 
covered  with  a  preparation  of  lamp  black  and  glycerine,  which 
is  allowed  to  remain  about  five  minutes,  when  the  surface  of 
the  plate  is  carefully  rubbed  with  clean  muslin,  exposing  the 
surface  of  the  lines, — all  this  being  done  in  a  dark  room  before 
an  orange  light,  which  is  non-actinic.  The  gelatine  is  now 
placed  in  a  frame  and  exposed  to  the  light  from  five  to  twenty 
minutes,  the  lampblack  protecting  the  spaces  between  the 
lines  from  the  action  of  the  light,  so  that  those  portions  remain 
soluble.  The  gelatine  is  again  scrubbed  until  the  proper  relief 
is  obtained,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  dry  for  about  twelve 
hours,  when  it  becomes  hard  and  is  ready  to  be  electrotyped. 

The  negatives  for  photo-etching  are  stripped  and  reversed 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  ivash-out  process.  The  metal 
generally  employed  for  this  process  is  zinc,  though  copper  is 
sometimes  used  for  very  fine  work.  The  zinc  is  very  highly 
polished,  and  a  thin  sensitizing  solution  is  flowed  over  it  and 
dried,  after  which  it  is  exposed  under  the  negativ^e  to  the 
action  of  the  light.  It  is  then  rolled  up  with  lithographic  ink, 
placed  in  a  dish  of  cold  water,  and  gently  rubbed  with  absorb- 
ent cotton,  the  ink  readily  leaving  the  unexposed  parts,  but 
remaining  on  the  exposed  lines  or  dots.  It  is  then  quickly 
dried  and  dusted  over  with  dragon's-blood  powder,  which  ad- 
heres only  to  the  remaining  inked  portions.  The  plate  is  then 
heated  and  cooled,  and  is  ready  for  the  etching  bath,  which 
consists  of  a  small  portion  of  nitric  acid  and  water.  After  the 
first  bite  the  plate  is  again  powdered,  heated  and  cooled, 
and  more  acid  added  to  the  bath.  This  is  repeated  several 
times,  after  which  the  plate  is  ready  for  the  press.  The  sides 
of  the  lines  are  protected  by  the  manner  in  which  the  powder 
is  applied  after  the  first  bite.  The  relief  obtained  in  this  way 
is  greater  than  can  be  obtained  by  any  other  process. 

In  reviewing  the  three  processes  above  described,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  photo-etching  process  is  the  shorter 
method,  no  moulding  or  casting  being  necessary,  and  the 
sharpness  of  the  finest  lines  is  preserved  in  a  manner  impossible 
by  the  other  methods.  The  plates  are  much  deeper,  and  are 
equally  suitable  for  the  finest  art  work,  down  to  the  roughest 
newspaper  work.  This  process,  of  which  there  are  several 
modes  of  operating,  has  become  very  popular  in  the  last  few 


3  8  PHO  TO-ENGRA  VI NG. 

years,  owing  to  the  many  improvements  introduced  by  the 
process  inventors,  who  have  turned  their  attention  to  it.  It 
has  many  advantages,  among  which  is  the  fact  that  a  plate 
can  be  put  on  the  press  within  two  hours  from  the  time  the 
copy  is  ready;  and  the  wearing  capacity  of  the  plates  is 
greater.  By  this  process  more  than  300,000  impressions  have 
been  taken  from  plates  of  fine  work,  while  swelled  gelatine 
plates  of  the  same  character  of  work  would  not  stand  over 
5000,  and  electrotypes  50,000  impressions.  The  main  advan- 
tage of  photo-etchings  to  the  printer  is,  that  the  plates  do 
not  require  constant  washing  up,  as  is  the  case  with  plates 
made  by  the  other  processes. 

A  photograph,  brush  drawing,  or  any  copy  that  is  not  made 
up  of  line  or  stipple,  can  be  produced  without  the  necessity 
of  a  line  drawing  by  the  aid  of  the  half-tone  process.  There 
are  several  of  these  processes  in  operation  in  this  country ; 
and,  although  originally  introduced  in  Germany  by  Miesent)ach, 
it  has  been  so  improved  by  American  inventors  that  the  Euro- 
pean work  is  far  below  the  standard  of  the  United  States.  The 
principal  methods  of  half-tone  in  this  country  are  worked 
secretly  by  the  inventors,  each  having  modifications  and  im- 
provements of  his  own.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  thorough 
description  here,  as  none  of  the  inventors  are  willing  to  risk 
patenting  their  processes,  and  a  complete  publication  is  not 
desirable.  The  copy  is  first  photographed,  giving  a  negative 
with  all  the  details  of  the  original.  This  negative  is  then  ex- 
posed to  the  camera,  and  the  result  is  a  positive,  or,  as  com- 
monly called,  a  transparency.  This  positive  is  then  placed  in 
contact  with  a  glass  plate  covered  with  ruled  lines.  This  plate 
is  termed  a  grating.  Being  placed  in  contact,  they  are  then 
photographed  together,  giving  a  negative  of  the  object  made 
up  of  lines  and  dots,  representing  the  lights  and  shades  of  the 
picture.  Here  the  half-tone  process  ends,  the  resulting  plate 
being  produced  by  any  of  the  photo-engraving  methods;  but 
the  most  satisfactory  results  are  obtained  by  photo-etching. 
The  main  objection  to  the  half-tone  plates  is  their  lack  of  relief. 
No  great  depth  can  be  obtained  without  sacrificing  the  effect. 
In  printing  these  plates  the  greatest  care  in  making  ready 
must  be  exercised,  and  a  smooth  surface  paper  must  be  used. 
It  is  also  necessary  that  a  fine  grade  of  ink  be  used  in  small 
quantity,  and  that  it  sliould  be  i)roperly  distrilnited. 


A   IVALK  OVER  OUR  FOUXDRY. 


39 


A  WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 

MR.  TYPOGRAPH,  how  are  you,  sir?     Glad  to  see  you. 
How  is  business  with  you  ?     Plenty  to  do,  and  cus- 
tomers paying  up?     You  are  so  prompt  in  paying  us,  that  we 


have  no  doubt  you  have  a  noble  set  of  customers.  You  wish 
to  add  to  your  stock  our  new  things?  All  right,  sir.  You 
have  a  fine  office  already,  but  you  want  to  keep  up  with  the 
times,  and  give  your  patrons  the  best  the  type-founder  can 
invent?    That's  the  way,  sir.    The  man  on  the  lookout  sees 

4* 


40 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUXDRY. 


the  sun  the  earliest.     Mr.  Faithful,  show  our  new  things  to  Mr. 
Typograph,  and  take  his  order. 

You  say,  Mr.  Typograph,  that  you  have  never  gone  over  a 
type-foundry?  We  shall  be  happy  to  show  you  every  thing. 
This  way,  sir.  Here  is  the  metal-house.  These  piles  of  dull 
lead,  these  casks  of  sparkling  antimony,  this  copper,  and 
this  tin  go  to  form  the  grand  amalgam  of  which  type 
is  made.  The  worthy  and  kind-hearted  man  who  is 
stirring  at  the  kettle,  unites,  in  bonds  stronger  than 
matrimony,  immense  masses  of  these  metals  every 
week.  It  may  appear  to  you,  Mr.  Typograph,  to  be 
an  e.xceedingly  simple  thing  to  throw  into  the  kettle 
certain  amounts  of  lead  and  antimony,  and  copper  and 
tin,  and  produce  type-metal.  Not  so,  good  friend.  It 
is  not  an  easy  matter  to  compose  a  metal  that  shall 
be  hard,  yet  not  brittle;  ductile,  yet  tough;  flowing 
freely,  yet  hardening  quickly.  All  these  conditions 
PUNCH,  must  be  met.  Break  a  bar  in  two,  and  examine  the 
grain  of  our  metal:  is  it  not  beautiful? 

Now,  sir,  let  us  up-stairs  and  see  how  these  bars  are  fitted 
for  i^rinters'  use.  This  is  a  punch-cutter — a  man  of 
exquisite  finger  and  unerring  eye — sitting  amid  keen 
and  delicate  tools  and  accurate  gauges.  There  are 
hut  few  of  this  kind  of  men  in  the  world.  On  the  end 
of  a  piece  of  steel  he  is  forming  a  letter.  A  touch 
liere  and  a  touch  there,  and  frequent  testing  by 
gauges, — so  he  proceeds,  till  the  letter  is  done ;  then 
another,  and  another,  till  the  alphabet  is  complete; 
all  the  letters  harmonizing  entirely  in  height,  breadth, 
appearance,  length  of  stroke,  &c.  A  smoke-proof 
of  the  dies  is  taken,  and  if  approved  the  dies  are  one 
by  one  placed  in  a  stamping-machine,  so, — and  an 
oblong  piece  of  copper  is  set  under  it,  so, — and  then 
this  lever  is  brought  down,  so, — and  a  perfect  im- 
MATRix.  pression  of  the  die  is  left,  as  you  see,  deep  in  the 
copper.  This  is  the  matrix.  Tiie  matrices  are  passed  over  to 
other  workmen  in  the  adjoining  room.  Observe  now  the 
carefulness  and  skill  exercised  in  fitting  up  tiiese  bits  of  cop- 
per, so  that,  when  placed  in  the  mould,  the  types  cast  in  them 
shall  range  accurately  and  be  of  uniform  height.  The  slightest 
variation  would  give  the  zigzag  appearance  which  you  may 


A    WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


41 


have  noticed  in  badly-made  type.  This  we  endeavour  sedu- 
lously to  avoid,  and  with  how  much  success  you  can  judge 
from  our  Specimen  Book.  Look  at  this  drawer  full  of  ma- 
trices. You  say  they  are  triumphs  of  art?  True  saying, 
evincive  of  good  judgment. 

You  wonder  what  these  curious-looking  instruments  are 
which  lie,  in  dusty  repose,  on  the  shelves  around  the  room? 


CASTING    MACHINE. 


A   JVALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


Those,  Mr.  Typograph,  are  hand-moulds,  and  at  one  time 
they  provoked  intense  covetousness  on  the  part  of  rival 
founders.  One  of  our  earliest  predecessors,  Mr.  Archibald 
Binny  (our  foundry  dates  from  1796),  added  such  valuable 
improvements  to  the  ordinary  mould,  that  no  other  foundry 
in  the  world  could  rival  the  expedition  and  accuracy  with 
which  types  were  cast  in  the  establishment  of  which  he  was 
a  co-proprietor.  Their  day  has  passed,  however.  They  have 
been  superseded  by  the  machines  which  you  will  see  in 
operation  in  another  apartment.  But  they  were  capital  things 
in  their  time,  sir,  and  we  regard  them  with  somewhat  of  an 
antiquary's  reverence. 

Now  we  enter  the  casting-rooms.  These  tiny  machines, 
small  as  they  are,  can  throw  out  more  type  in  one  day  than 
you  would  be  likely  to  count  in  a  month,  even  if  you  could 
call  off  one  hundred  a  minute,  and  occupy  ten  hours  a  day. 
Snug  little  fellows,  are  they  not?  They  were  invented  by  a 
New-Yorker,  Mr.  David  Bruce,  Jr.  A  very  ingenious  man, 
you  say?  That  is  true.  Look  at  one  carefully.  The  metal  is 
kept  fluid  by  a  little  furnace  underneath,  and  is  projected  into 
the  mould  by  a  pump,  the  spout  of  which,  you  see,  is  in  front 
of  the  metal-pot.  The  mould  is  movable,  and  at  every  revo- 
lution of  the  crank  it  comes  up  to  the  spout,  receives  a  charge 
of  metal,  and  flies  back- with  a  fully-formed  type  in  its  bosom; 
the  upper  half  of  the  mould  lifts,  and  out  jumps  a  type  as 
lively  as  a  tadpole.  You  don't  see  how  the  letter  is  formed 
on  the  end  of  the  type?  True,  we  had  forgotten:  well,  this 
spring  in  front  holds  in  loving  proximity  to  the  mould  a  cop- 
per matrix,  such  as  you  saw  just  now  in  the  fitting-room. 
The  letter  a,  for  instance,  stamped  in  the  matrix,  sits  directly 
opposite  the  aperture  in  the  mould  which  meets  the  spout  of 
the  pump;  and  when  a  due  proportion  of  a's  is  cast,  another 
matrix  with  b  stamped  in  it  takes  its  place ;  and  so  on  through- 
out the  alphabet.  Slow  work,  you  say,  one  at  a  time?  Well, 
the  world  is  peopled  after  that  fashion;  and  it  fills  up  fast 
enough.  But  just  time  this  machine:  it  is  making  small,  thin 
type.  Count  the  type  made  in  a  minute.  One  hundred  and 
seventy-five,  you  say.  One  hundred  per  minute  will  probably 
be  the  average  of  the  ordinary  sizes  of  printing  type. 

The  types  are  not  finished  yet?  Oh,  no.  These  nimble- 
fingered  boys  are  breaking  off  the  jets,  or  waste  ends  of  the 


A    WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY.  43 

type.  Quick,  a'n't  they?  Now  let  us  go  up  stairs  into  the 
dressing-room.  An  immense  beehive?  Yes,  indeed,  it  looks 
like  one.  The  lads  clustered  around  the  large  circular  stones, 
with  leather-protected  fingers,  rub  off  the  rough  edges  of  the 
type.  But  men  as  well  as  type  require  their  rough  edges 
taken  off  before  they  are  good  for  much  in  the  world.  These 
boys  at  the  tables  set  up  the  type  in  long  lines.  You  think 
that  if  you  could  pick  up  dollars  as  fast  as  they  pick  up  type, 
you  would  retire  an  independent  man  in  a  year  or  two  ?  We 
wish  you  could,  Mr.  Typograph ;  we  wish  you  could. 

The  lines  of  type  now  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  dresser. 
Observe  how  deftly  he  slips  them  into  a  long  stick,  shakes 
them  down  on  their  face,  screws  them  up,  fastens  them  into  a 
planing-board,  and  with  one  or  two  pushes  with  a  planing  tool 
accurately  grooves  the  bottom  of  the  type,  removing  entirely 
the  burr  left  when  the  jet  is  broken  off,  and  giving  each  type 
a  pair  of  legs  to  stand  upon,  till  it  is  worn  out  and  returned 
to  the  melting  kettle.  What  is  the  eye-glass  used  for  ?  Why, 
sir,  as  soon  as  the  types  are  grooved,  the  dresser  narrowly 
inspects  the  face  of  the  type,  and  if  an  imperfect  letter  is  dis- 
covered by  the  aid  of  the  magnifying  glass,  it  is  incontinently 
turned  out.  Ah,  sir,  if  we  were  all  inspected  as  severely  as  he 
criticises  type,  some  of  us,  perhaps,  would  hardly  pass  muster. 
The  immaculate  types  are  next  put  up  in  pages  of  convenient 
size,  and  are  ready  for  the  purchaser. 

Let  us  drop  into  the  large  machine-room.  Does  not  every 
thing  hum  here!  Is  it  not  a  beautiful  sight  to  see  the  shafts 
and  belts  and  pulleys  whirling  around  as  if  they  were  all 
alive?  Here  we  fit  up  our  machines,  make  our  moulds,  re- 
pair damages  to  machinery,  &c.  The  multifarious  uses  of 
these  lathes  you  must  be  familiar  with:  this  ponderous  ma- 
chine is  an  iron  planer:  how  it  makes  the  iron  chips  fly! 
What  is  that  curiously-arranged  lathe?  That  is  for  cutting 
Labour-Saving  Rule, — the  rule  which  you  have  found  so  con- 
venient and  economical  in  your  job-room.  We  make  it  of 
many  different  styles  of  faces:  some  single,  some  dotted  or 
hyphen-lines,  and  others  parallel  or  double,  of  varying  thick- 
nesses. They  are  all  cut  to  Pica  ems  in  length,  and  are 
furnished  with  mitred  corner-pieces  of  different  angles,  so 
contrived,  in  most  of  the  sizes,  as  to  allow  the  rule  to  be  used 
single  or  double,  and  with  the  fine  lines  inside  or  outside. 


44 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


Here  are  specimens  of  our  new  slotted  brass  corners,  so 
handsome  and  useful  to  the  skilled  printer.  See  how  accu- 
rately the  slotted  pieces  fit  in  one  another,  so  that  you  cannot 
detect  the  joint.     Are  they  not  effective?     Our  brass  is  care- 


■*-^%  »— ♦■ 


SLOTTED  BRASS  CORNERS. 

fully  rolled  by  the  best  manufacturers  in  the  country,  and  is 
sent  to  us  in  strips  or  in  sheets.  That  wicked-looking  shears 
yonder  cuts  up  the  thinner  brass  with  as  much  unction  as 
Commissioner  Yeh's  executioner  slices  off  heads:  the  thick 
brass  goes  under  a  circular  steam-saw. 

Now,  sir,  while  we  are  up  here,  we  will  peep  into  the 
printers'  furnishing-room.  Isn't  this  a  beautiful  stereotype- 
block?    Doesn't  it  do  your  eyes  good  to  look  at  such  perfect 

workmanship?  And  these 
brass  galleys,  and  mahoga- 
ny galleys  and  composing 
sticks,  are  they  not  admira- 
ble? Our  effort  in  this  de- 
partment, as  in  all  others, 
is  to  do  our  work  well.  All 
our  miscellaneous  wood-work  is  done  here, — stands,  racks, 
drawers,  stereotype  and  packing  boxes,  &c.  Some  curious 
work  has  been  designed  and  executed  for  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  as  well  as  brass  ciphering-frames  for  the  blind. 

Ah,  we  forgot  to  show  you  our  large-type  room.  On  our 
way  to  the  electrotype  department,  we  will  glance  in  it.  The 
types  you  see  here  cool  too  slowly  to  be  cast  in  a  machine, 
so  we  continue  to  pour  them.  Look  over  the  drawers,  and 
see  the  multitude  of  patterns.  Some  men  fancy  one  style, 
and  some  another.     So  we  try  to  meet  all  tastes.     Feel  hovu 


STEREOTYPE    BLOCK. 


A  WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY.  45 

solid  the  type  is.  You  can't  squeeze  the  life  out  of  that  type 
on  a  power-press.     No,  indeed.     It  is  made  for  wear. 

Now,  Mr.  Typograph,  we  enter  the  grimed  and  murky 
electrotype-room.  Electrotyping,  you  are  aware,  is  simply 
stereotyping  in  copper.  Its  advantages  over  stereotyping 
are,  sharpness  of  outline  in  plates  from  wood-cuts,  and  great 
durability.  Plates  for  books  of  large  circulation  are  always 
electrotyped,  as  well  as  cuts,  engravings,  binders'  stamps,  &c. 
The  thing  to  be  electrotyped,  after  being  carefully  and  almost 
Imperceptibly  glazed  with  plumbago,  is  laid  upon  a  press,  and 
a  prepared  mould  is  placed  over  it,  and  an  exact  impression 
taken.  This  is  well  dusted  with  plumbago,  and  then  deposited 
in  the  electric  bath.  Nature  immediately  takes  up  her  part 
of  the  work,  and  a  brilliant  coating  of  copper  is  deposited 
upon  the  mould.  When  sufficiently  thick,  it  is  taken  out  of 
the  battery,  and,  as  you  may  notice,  presents  on  the  wrong 
side  the  appearance  of  a  printed  sheet  of  copper.  This  sheet 
is  then  filled  up  on  the  back  to  the  requisite  degree  of  thick- 
ness, and  fastened  to  a  block,  ready  to  be  used  with  type  on 
a  common  printing-press.  Plumbago,  you  remark,  does  not 
improve  the  countenances  of  the  operatives  ?  True  ;  but  a 
little  soap  and  water,  vigorously  applied,  proves  the  title  of 
these  intelligent  workmen  to  rank  among  white  folk. 

To  you,  Mr.  Typograph,  our  composing-rooms  present  no- 
thing new,  except,  perhaps,  in  its  vast  number  of  job  founts, 
due  to  the  fact  that  we  now  mainly  confine  our  work  in  this 
department  to  all  kinds  of  jobbing;  and  yet  in  ten  years  we 
have  set  up  in  these  rooms  and  stereotyped  more  than  eight 
hundred  considerable  works, — most  of  them  consisting  of  a 
single  volume,  but  some  of  from  two  to  twelve  volumes  each, 
— besides  a  multitude  of  smaller  books,  tracts,  &c.  Among 
the  rest  we  may  mention  two  Quarto  Bibles,  (one  of  them, 
now  published  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Bi.  Co.,  the  grandest  ever  got 
up  in  America,)  Lippincott's  two  great  Gazetteers,  Dr.  Kane's 
Explorations,  The  North  American  Sylva,  Thiers'  Napoleon, 
and  Macaulay's  England:  Allibone's  magnificent  Dictionary 
of  Authors  and  Books  among  the  number. 

After  the  pages  have  been  set  and  carefully  read,  they  are 
sent  down  to  the  casting-room.  In  the  electrotype-room, 
every  thing  is  as  black  as  the  brow  of  a  coal-heaver:  in  the 
casting-room,  all  is  as  white  as  the  neck  of  a  belle.     Take 


46 


A    WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


care,  sir,  or  your  coat  will  commit  a  larceny  of  our  plaster. 
The  form  of  type  is  laid  on  this  stone,  and  nicely  oiled :  and 
then  a  mixture  of  plaster  and  water — doesn't  it  look  like  a 
good  wife's  buckwheat  batter? — is  poured  over  it,  and  gently 
rolled  in.  In  a  short  time  the  plaster  sets,  and  the  mould  is 
removed  by  screws  as  tenderly  as  a  nurse  bandies  a  baby.  It 
is  then  dried  in  this  hot-tempered  oven,  and,  after  the  moisture 
is  all  evaporated,  it  is  laid  in  a  pan  and  fastened  tightly,  as 
you  see,  and  plunged  into  this  terrible  bath  of  a  thousand 
pounds  of   molten  type-metal.     Phew!    you   exclaim,   what 


STEREOTYPE   CASTING-ROOM. 


warm  work !  Yes,  sir ;  but  from  that  fiery  sea  of  lead  soon 
emerges  the  pan,  and  its  hissing  heat  is  gradually  overcome 
by  the  water  in  the  trough  into  which  the  pan  is  lowered. 
Now,  caster,  break  it  out.  There,  Mr.  Typograph,  is  the  plate, 
fixed, — immovable, — stereotyped.  The  mould  is  ruined  ;  but 
the  plate  is  comparatively  immortalized.  It  is  rough  yet,  and, 
like  an  uncouth  boy,  needs  polishing. 

This  next  room  is  the  finishing-room.  Here  the  plates  are 
carefully  examined,  picked,  shaved,  trimmed,  and  boxed, 
ready  for  the  printer.  Take  a  plate  in  your  hand  and  examine 
it:  it  will  bear  inspection.  You  say  it  is  far  better  than  the 
untrimmed,  uneven  plates  of  English  founders?  We  know 
that,  sir;  for  we  have  often  had  to  re-finish  English  plates  im- 
ported by  some  publisher  who  imagined  he  could  save  a  little 
by  ordering  a  duplicate  set  of  plates  of  a  popular  foreign 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY.  47 

book.  A  mistake,  sir.  Both  in  type-founding  and  in  stereo- 
typing the  Americans  have  driven  the  foreigner  from  the  field, 
— and  in  the  only  legitimate  way,  too:  simply  by  surpassing 
him. 

In  this  nook  below,  our  engraving  is  done.  The  drawing 
is  made  on  the  block  by  the  designer,  as  you  see:  then 
patiently  and  skilfully  the  engraver  cuts  and  digs  out,  till  the 
lines  and  shapes  and  lights  and  shades  are  all  revealed  in  the 
beautiful  picture.  Our  work  in  this  department  gives  so  much 
satisfaction  that  we  are  seldom  without  orders. 

Now,  Mr.  Typograph,  we  shall  admit  you  into  our  editorial 
parlour.  Walk  in,  sir.  It  is  not  carpeted,  and  its  principal 
furnishings  comprise  a  desk  or  two,  a  few  presses,  stands  and 
cases,  with  multitudinous  type-surroundings.  Here,  sir,  we 
edit  and  print  our  Specimen  Books  and  our  Typographic 
Advertiser.  Don't  you  see  poetical  flies  buzzing  around,  and 
atoms  of  wit-dust  floating  in  the  air,  and  odours  of  sentiment 
stealing  out  at  the  key-holes,  and  grains  of  common  sense 
sprinkled  all  over  the  floor.  Will  you  have  a  few  specimens 
as  curiosities?  You  say  you  have  already  a  good  assortment 
in  our  Advertiser  and  our  Book  ?  Very  well,  sir :  we  hope  you 
will  treasure  them  up.  You  say  truly  when  you  remark,  that 
the  printing  done  in  this  room  is  seldom,  if  ever,  surpassed 
in  America.  We  know  that ;  and  we  intend  to  stand  on  the 
topmost  round  of  the  typographical  ladder,  and  to  show 
our  fellow-artists  what  can  be  done  with  type  such  as  we 
manufacture. 

We  are  afraid,  Mr.  Typograph,  that  your  long  excursion 
over  the  house  has  wearied  you.  Let  us  go  down-stairs  again. 
These,  sir,  are  our  warerooms.  On  these  numerous  shelves 
are  ranged  founts  of  all  the  various  sorts  of  types  made  by 
us,  carefully  put  up,  labelled  and  classified,  and  all  accessible 
at  a  minute's  notice.  Our  customers  throughout  the  country 
keep  actively  employed  all  these  porters,  packers,  clerks, 
salesmen,  and  bookkeepers.  Many  of  our  customers  have 
never  visited  us;  but  we  put  up  their  orders  with  as  conscien- 
tious fidelity  and  care  as  if  they  were  standing  before  us  and 
watching  our  every  movement.  We  are  happy  to  see  them, 
and  hope  none  will  visit  our  city  without  calling  in  and  taking 
us  by  the  hand.  We  like  to  see  them  face  to  face,  so  that  we 
can  hang  up  their  portraits  in  our  mental  gallery ;  and,  when  we 

5 


48 


A   WALK  OVER  OUR  FOUNDRY. 


afterward  receive  a  letter  from  them,  we  can  imagine  tliat  we 
are  hearing  them  talk  to  us  rather  than  reading  their  writing. 

The  side-door  on  which  your  eye  has  just  rested  leads  to 
one  of  our  fire-proofs.  Enter  it.  Here,  sir,  are  safely  stored 
many  thousand  matrices,  as  well  as  moulds,  when  not  in  use. 
As  it  would  require  the  labour  of  many  weary  years  to  replace 
them  if  destroyed,  we  endeavour  to  keep  them  secure  from 
the  danger  of  ruin  by  fire.  The  upbuilding  of  a  complete 
type-foundry  is  a  work  of  generations. 

You  will  hardly  care  to  look  into  the  basement, — the  store- 
house of  ink  and  other  typographical  appliances?  Your  time 
is  exhausted?  Then,  sir,  we  bid  you  good-day.  A  safe  return 
to  your  pleasant  family,  Mr.  Typograph. 


IMPLEMENTS  OR  TOOLS  OF  THE  ART. 


TYPES. 

or  letters  generally  used  for  printing  in 
Europe  and  America  are  termed 
Roman,  Italic,  and  Old  English,  or 
Black  Letter. 


ROMAN  LETTER. 

Roman  letters  were  employed 
in  MSS.  from  the  fifth  to  about  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century,  when 
what  are  called  Gothic  letters  (after- 
ward Old  English)  came  gradually 
into  use ;  these  continued  for  seve- 
ral centuries,  when,  in  most  coun- 
tries, they  were  superseded  by  the 
Roman  characters.  All  printing 
was  in  black  letter  down  to  1465, 
when  Sweinheim  &  Pannartz,  in  Subiaco  near  Rome,  produced 
a  volume  entitled  Lactantius,  in  a  character  approaching  to 
the  actual  forms  of  our  modern  types.  In  1467,  they  made 
an  improved  set  of  characters,  and  printed  about  forty  volumes 
within  the  five  years  following.  About  1469  John  of  Spires, 
in  Venice,  made  a  great  advance  in  improving  the  form  of  the 
Roman  character,  and  printed  the  Natural  History  of  Pliny: 
the  execution  of  this  work  is  very  remarkable.  But  Nicholas 
Jenson  may  fairly  be  considered  the  father  of  the  style  of 
Roman  letter  now  in  vogue.     He  printed  in  Venice  four  works 

49 


50  TYPES. 

in  the  year  1470,  the  first  of  which  was  Eusebii  Pmparatio 
Novorum,  &c.,  in  types  which  were  cut  by  him,  more  perfect 
in  form  than  those  of  any  earUer  printer.  The  printers  named 
above  were  all  of  them  Germans. 

The  Roman  letters  consist  of  circles,  arcs  of  circles,  and 
straight  lines ;  and,  therefore,  on  the  score  of  simplicity,  pre- 
cision, and  elegance,  they  certainly  deserve  to  be  adopted  as 
the  standard  for  all  nations. 

A  printer,  in  choosing  type,  should  not  only  attend  to  the 
cut  of  the  letter,  but  should  also  observe  that  its  shank  is  per- 
fectly true,  and  that  it  lines  or  ranges  with  accuracy,  and  is 
of  equal  height.  The  quality  of  the  metal  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed and  the  finish  of  the  letter  demand  particular  atten- 
tion, as  the  competition  among  some  of  the  smaller  foundries 
(which  have  sprung  into  existence  through  the  facilities  af- 
forded of  multiplying  matrices  by  the  electrotype  process) 
has  led  them  to  use  an  inferior  metal,  and  produce  types 
without  due  regard  to  nicety  of  finish  and  exactness  of  body 
and  standing. 

It  is  important  that  types  should  have  a  deep  face,  with 
strong,  bevelled  bases  or  foundations  under  the  ceriphs  or 
hairlines,  and  that  the  letters  should  have  a  deep  nick,  which 
should  be  different  from  other  founts  of  like  body  in  the  same 
house. 

ITALIC  LETTER, 

Aldo  Mamiccio,  born  at  Bassa?io,  succeeded  Jenson  at  Venice 
and  turned  to  good  accou7it  the  tatter's  admirable  founts  of 
type.  He  also  made  tnany  advances  in  the  art  of  printing,  tlie 
most  notable  of  which  is  the  invention  of  the  style  of  type  now 
ktiown  as  Italic.  It  was  first  used  in  an  octavo  edition  of  Virgil 
issued  by  him  i?i  i§oi,  and  Pope  Leo  X.  gave  him  a  letter  of 
privilege,  entitling  him  to  the  sole  use  of  the  type  he  had  in- 
vented. It  was  said  to  be  founded  on  the  handwriting  of 
Petrarch,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

Italic  was  largely  employed  to  distinguish  such  parts  of  a 
book  as  might  be  considered  appendages,  as  Prefaces,  Intro- 
ductions, Annotations,  &c.,  all  of  which  were  formerly  printed 
in  this  character;  so  that  perhaps  two-fifths  of  a  fount  was 
composed  of  Italic  letter. 

At  present  it  is  used  more  sparingly,  being  superseded  by 


BLACK  LETTER  AND  SAXON.  51 

the  more  elegant  mode  of  enclosing  extracts  within  inverted 
commas,  and  by  setting  poetry  and  annotations  in  a  smaller- 
sized  type.  It  is  very  appropriately  used  to  distinguish  the 
head  or  subject-matter  of  a  chapter,  and  is  serviceable  in  gram- 
mars and  other  school-books  as  well  as  scientific  works.  The 
frequent  use  of  Italic  words  among  Roman  in  ordinary  mat- 
ter impairs  the  beauty  of  the  page,  and  ought  to  be  avoided; 
yet  authors  sometimes  stubbornly  insist  on  the  gratification 
of  their  whimsies,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  every  principle  of 
correct  taste. 

BLACK  LETTER. 

C^is  letter,  iDtjtcfj  bas  useti  xxi  tfie  infancg  of 
printing,  iTfgrentfD  from  tije  (&oti)tc  cl)aractcrs:  it 
10  callrti  (&ot|)ic  6j)  some,  antj  ©Iti  <!?nglis|)  t)g 
otijers ;  tut  printers  term  it  13lark  ILetter,  on  account 
of  itg  ieabg  appearance. 

In  Germany,  the  letters  in  common  use  are  founded  on 
the  Gothic  character;  but  even  there  scientific  works  are 
printed  in  the  German  language  with  Roman  letters. 

The  Dutch  adhere  to  the  black  letter  in  books  of  devotion 
and  religious  treatises;  while  they  make  use  of  the  Roman  in 
their  curious  and  learned  works. 


SAXON  CHARACTERS. 

The  Saxon  characters  originated  probably  from  the  Gothic, 
but  were  altered  or  modified  after  the  Latin  ones  which  the 
Saxons  found  in  use  in  England  in  the  fifth  century.  The 
first  Saxon  types  were  cut  by  John  Daye,  under  the  patronage 
of  Archbishop  Parker,  about  the  year  1567.  We  give  the 
Lord's  Prayer  in  modern  Anglo-Saxon  types: 

Faebep  ujie  J^u  J^e  eap-  on  heojrenum.  81  >in  nama  jehaljob.  To- 
becume  \>\xi  pice.  IrepujiSe  \>\w  pilla  on  eopJ>an,  j^a  rpa  on  heojre- 
num. Upne  baeshpamlican  hlaj:  gyye  up  ro  baeS.  "Xwh  fopsyp  up 
upe  Sj'lrap,  ppa  p]a  pe  yopjiya'S  upum  gylcenbum.  "Kwh  ne  gelaebbe 
)>u  up  on  copcuunse.  ac  alyp  up  op  vpele.     80  Slice. 


5  2  TYPES. 


NAMES  AND  SIZES  OF  TYPE. 

THE  principal  bodies  to  wiiich  printing  letters  are  cast  in 
England  and  America  are  the  following : — 


I. 

Diamond. 

II. 

English. 

2. 

Pearl. 

12. 

Columbian. 

3- 

Agate. 

13- 

Great  Primer. 

4- 

Nonpareil. 

14. 

Paragon. 

5- 

Minion. 

15- 

Double  Small  Pica. 

6. 

Brevier. 

16. 

Double  Pica. 

7- 

Bourgeois. 

17- 

Double  English. 

8. 

Long  Primer. 

18. 

Double  Great  Primer. 

9- 

Small  Pica. 

19- 

Double  Paragon. 

ID. 

Pica. 

20. 

Canon. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  a  smaller  size  than  Diamond,  called 
Brilliant,  is  now  cast  in  the  foundry  of  MacKellar,  Smiths  & 
Jordan  of  Philadelphia,  the  body  of  which  is  just  one-half  of 
Minion.  Even  this  is  surpassed  in  smallness  by  a  music  type 
cast  in  the  same  foundry,  named  Excelsior,  which  is  precisely 
one-half  the  size  of  Nonpareil.  Another  size  omitted  in  the 
li.st  is  Minionette,  (equivalent  to  si.x  of  the  Didot  points,) 
which  is  next  above  Nonpareil. 

Canon  is  conceded  to  have  been  first  produced  by  a  French 
artisan,  and  was  probably  used  in  some  work  relating  to  the 
canons  of  the  church ;  to  which  the  German  title,  Mi.ssal,  alludes. 

Two-line  Great  Primer,  Two-line  English,  and  Two-line 
Pica,  owe  their  names  to  the  respective  bodies  of  which  the 
depth  of  two  em  quadrates  answers  to  one  of  the  double  sizes. 

Paragon  was  probably  first  cut  in  France.  It  is  known  as 
Text  by  the  Germans. 

Pica  is  universally  considered  as  the  standard  type,  and  by 
it  furniture,  quotations  and  labour-saving  rules  are  graduated. 
A  line  83  Pica  ems  long  is  equivalent  to  35  centimeters.  The 
twelfth  part  of  Pica  is  the  unit,  called  a  Point,  by  which 
tyj^e-bodies  are  measured.  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  cast 
their  new  borders,  ornaments,  and  job  type  on  Pica,  and  its 
subdivisions  of  Nonpareil,  (>^  Pica,)  and  E.xcelsior,  {%  Pica,) 
and  their  multiples. 


NAMES  AND  SIZES.  53 

Great  Primer^  called  Tertia  in 
Germany^  is  one  of  the  major 
sizes  of  type  which  were  early 
used  for  printing  considerable 
works,  and  especially  the  Bible; 
on  which  account  some  persons 
term  it  Bible  Text.  The  French 
name  is  Gros  Romain. 

English  is  called  Mittel  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  St.  Augustin  by  the  French 
and  Dutch;  the  word  Mittel  (Middle) 
intimating  that  the  former  sizes  of  letter 
were  seven  in  niimbei',  the  centre  of 
which  was  English,  with  Prima,  Secunda, 
and  Tertia  on  one  side,  and  Pica,  Long 
Primer,  and  Brevier  on  the  other.  The 
name  St.  Augustin  was  probably  given 
because  the  writings  of  that  Father  were 
the  first  works  done  in  that  letter. 

Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  the  French  and 
Germans.  As  the  preceding  size  was  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  St.  Augustin,  so  this 
has  been  honoured  with  that  of  Cicero,  on 
account  of  the  Epistles  of  that  writer  having 
been  first  done  in  letter  of  this  size.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  name  was  given  by  the 
French  or  the  Germans. 


54  TYPES. 

Small  Pica  is  a  grade  below  Pica,  and  is  now  gene- 
rally employed  in  octavo  volumes,  and  is,  indeed, 
almost  the  only  size  used  for  printing  legal  reports 
and  other  law  books.  The  French  call  this  letter 
Philosophic,  whicli,  however,  is  merely  a  Pica  face  on 
Small  Pica  body.    The  Germans  call  it  Kleine  Cicero. 

Long  Primer.  Upon  the  supposition  that  some  bodies 
of  letter  took  their  names  from  works  in  which  they  were 
first  employed,  we  are  induced  to  believe  that  the  Germans 
gave  the  name  of  Corpus  to  this  character  on  account  of  their 
Corpus  Juris  being  first  done  in  this  size.  The  French 
call  this  letter  Petit  Romain. 

Bourgeois  is  a  very  useful  and  convenient  size  of  letter.  It 
is  frequently  used  in  double-column  octavo  pages.  The  name 
indicates  that  it  originated  in  France;  although  type  of  this 
body  is  now  called  Gaillarde  by  French  printers.  Two  lines 
of  this  letter  are  equivalent  to  one  line  of  Great  Primer,  or 
four  lines  of  Diamond. 

Brevier  was  first  used  for  printing  the  Breviaries,  or  Roman 
Catholic  Church  books,  and  hence  its  name.  The  Germans  call 
it  Petit,  and  .Jungfer  (maiden  letter).  It  is  an  admirable  type, 
and  cannot  conveniently  be  dispensed  with  in  any  considerable 
printing-office. 

Minion  follows  Brevier,  and  is  commonly  used  for  newspapers,  and 
for  notes  and  indexes  in  book-work.  Its  name  is  due  j)robably  to  its 
being  smaller  than  any  type  in  use  at  the  period  of  its  invention.  It 
fills  a  useful  place  in  a  printing-oflBce. 

Nonpareil  cime  next  in  order;  and  its  originator,  supposing  that  he  had 
reached  th(^  extreme  of  diniiiiutiveness,  gave  it  this  triumphant  title.  It  is  exten- 
sively iiBed,  though  mostly  on  newspapers,  and  lor  notes  and  indexes  for  duo- 
decimo books  and  smaller.  It  is  certainly  the  smallest  type  that  should  be 
allowed  in  book-work. 

Af;atc  firoliably  arose  from  the  necessities  of  newspaper  publishers.  As  patronage  in- 
crea.sed,  it  became  desirable  to  have  a  type  less  in  size  than  Nonpareil,  for  the  advertise- 
ments, shipping  news,  markets,  &c. ;  and  Agate  was  made  to  meet  the  emergency.  It  ig 
now  extensively  used  for  pocket  editions  of  the  Bible  and  Prayer  Books. 

Pe»rl  nijiy  lie  said  to  ha%'e  been  born  of  ambition.  As  punch-cutters  became  more  expert,  some 
one  po-<se.ssed  of  a  keen  eye  and  a  delicate  mechanical  finger  determined  to  surpass  in  smalluess 
the  arhiivemcnts  of  his  predecessors.  Hence  the  origin  of  this  type.  This  type  is  also  employed 
in  priming  miniature  volumes. 

DUmoDi]  follovcd,  ait  a  mattrr  of  courfe ;  for  human  inepnuitj,  when  proTokr<t.  seems  detennined  to  po  to  tbe 
utmo.t  vcnte  of  po^sihUit;.  Thia  type  In  ao  minute  that  a  pound  of  it  will  contain  more  than  StOn  of  the  letter  i ; 
jet,  to  produce  each  letter  of  an  alf>lia)>ct,  a  steel  punch  liaa  to  be  cut  and  a  matrix  made,  in  which  the  t^pcfl  are 
caet  one  bj  one,  and,  beioi;  set  up  in  lines,  are  rubbed  and  dressed  by  the  founder  for  the  use  of  tbe  compositor. 

nrilliarit.  RspcTt  peornaa.  It  U  t«M.  ha.*  aueeMdMl  In  writing  tl>#  Lord'i  Vtvin  upon  tha  ad([B  of  a  %\\ft\  of  papar.  A  trpa. 
cvttar  i'l  IWrtin.  iH„ra  aurpri.tnaljr,  haa  r<,rma"l  a  (ypa  ao  minute  a>  to  l>a  ararcrl,  raa'labla  without  »  ([ood  nia|inir,ingKla«,.  Tl>«  tjpa 
«f  thia  paraaraph.  though  not  so  amall  aa  the  microaropk-  K.ttara  produced  Id  Pruiaia,  la  yvt  ao  diminutiTe  that  ovca  Diamond  ia  larga 
^  (wmpariaon.     Uf  tba  letter  i  aaarly  W»i  go  to  a  pound. 


PROPORTIOXS  OF  TYPES.  55 


GRADATION  OF  TYPES. 

THE  following  specimen  shows  the  proportion  which  one 
size  of  type  bears  to  another  in  width;  but  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  that  it  must  be  taken  with  certain  limitations,  be- 
cause each  founder  has  letter  of  every  size  that  will  either 
drive  out  or  get  in  with  others  of  the  same  body,  some  faces 
being  more  extended  and  others  being  more  condensed  than 
the  standard  width  of  type.  The  scale  contains  thirteen  sizes 
in  order  of  gradation,  viz.,  Great  Primer,  English,  Pica,  Small 
Pica,  Long  Primer,  Bourgeois,  Brevier,  Minion,  Nonpareil, 
Agate,  Pearl,  Diamond,  and  Brilliant. 

When  in  the  course   of  human* 

When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  b 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes 
When  in  the  course  of  human  ■  events  it  becomes  nece 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  f 
AVhen  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
'When  in  the  course  of  human*  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  events  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve 
When  in  the  course  of  human  •  eveuts  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  poi 
When  in  tbe  course  of  human  ■  events  it  l}ecomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  wh 
When  ia  the  courae  of  human  '  eveots  it  becomes  oeceitsary  tor  one  }>eople  to  dieaolve  the  political  bands  whioh  have  connected  th 

POINT  SYSTEM  OF  TYPE-BODIES. 

IN  1SS2,  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  began  to  make  type 
on  the  proportional  system  of  bodies.  The  Pica  em, 
being  the  eighty-third  part  of  thirty  five  centimetres,  was 
divided  into  twelve  parts,  or  points.  This  system  of  exact 
proportional  type-bodies  was  approved  of  and  adopted  by 
the  American  type-founders  generally.  It  has  been  favour- 
ably received  by  printers  in  this  country,  and  all  printing 
offices  will  in  due  time  be  fully  equipped  with  types  of  this 
description. 

The  standard  for  the  height  of  type  was  fixed  at  2jj  centi- 
metres. 


56 


TYPES. 


In  some  European  countries  printing  offices  had  their 
types  cast  to  a  height  to  suit  tiie  proprietor's  whim.  Some 
of  the  foreign  founders  have  sent  young  men  to  Philadelphia 
to  be  educated  in  the  American  system  of  heights  and  bodies, 
and  at  least  two  foundries  in  Germany  have  adopted  the 
American  plan. 

The  following  table  shows  the  systematic  gradation  of 
bodies  and  position  of  nicks  in  the  point  system,  one  point 
being  equivalent  to  1-12  of  a  Pica  em. 

3  Point. 


■}}/,  Point. 


4  Point. 


4i<;  Point. 


Excelsior. 
Brilliant. 

^ 

I  Point. 

^P  Three-line 

^            Nonpareil 

20  Point. 

Semi-Brevier. 

^^^H 

^P  Two-line 

^L        Long  Primer 

Diamond. 

■22  Point. 

Pearl. 

^P  Two-line 

^           Small  Pica. 

Agate. 

24  Point. 

Nonpareil. 

■ 

■  Two-line  Pica. 

Minion. 

28 

Point. 

Brevier. 

Cm 

V  Two-line 

^                 English. 

Bourgeois. 

3'1  Pf)INT. 

Long  Primer. 

^1 

V  Five-line 

^L             Nonpareil. 

Small  Pica. 

?-> 

Point. 

Pica. 


English. 


Two-line 
Brevier. 


Brevier. 


Three-line  Pica. 


A  BILL  OF  PICA. 


57 


T 


A  BILL  OF  PICA. 

HE  following  is  reckoned  by  the  founders  a  regular  fount, 
complete  in  all  its  sorts : — 

A  BILL  OF  800  LBS.  OF  PICA. 


1600 
3000 
44CX3 
12000 
2500 
1700 
6400 
8000 

400 

800 
4000 
3000 
8000 
8000 
1700 

500 
6200 
8000 
9000 
3400 
1200 
2000 

400 
2000 

200 
200 
400 
500 
200 
100 

100 
60 

90 
60 


600 
2000 
1000 

200 

700 
300 
150 
100 
TOO 
100 
I<K> 
100 
60 

1300 
1200 
IIOO 

1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1300 


200 
200 
200 

200 

All  other 
accents,  100 
each. 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 

J 
K 
1. 

M 
N 
O 
P 

Q 
R 

S 
T 
U 
V 

w 

X 

Y 
Z 

M 
CE 


600 

A 

400 

B 

.  50° 

C 

.  500 

D 

.  600 

E 

400 

F 

400 

G 

400 

H 

800 

I 

.   3°o 

J 

.   300 

K 

500 

L 

.   400 

M 

400 

N 

400 

0 

400 

P 

.   180 

Q 

400 

R 

.   500 

S 

650 

T 

300 

U 

.   300 

V 

400 

w 

180 

X 

300 

Y 

80 

Z 

40 

K 

30 

CB. 

300 
200 
250 
250 
300 
200 
200 
200 
400 

150 

150 
250 

200 
200 
200 
200 

90 

200 

250 
326 
150 
150 

200 

90 
150 
40 


spaces. 

Thick 18000 

Middle 12000 

Thin.     ........    8000 

Hair 3000 

Em  Quads     ......    2500 

En  Quads 5000 

Large  Quadrates,  about  80  lbs. 


Italic,  one-tenth  of  Rotuati. 

Owing  to  the  varying  styles  of  authors  and  the  diverse  sub- 
jects of  books,  some  letters  will  now  and  then  run  short  in  a 


58  TYPES. 

fount,  whatever  the  proportions  may  have  been  at  first.  A  new 
fount  of  tjpe  may  run  evenly  on  a  work  in  general  literature 
written  in  the  third  person,  while  a  novel  filled  with  dialogues 
in  the  first  person  will  rapidly  exhaust  certain  letters,  and  re- 
tjuire  sorts  to  render  the  fount  serviceable  to  its  full  general 
capacity.  So  with  scientific  and  other  books.  Even  in  the 
case  of  two  authors  writing  on  the  same  subject,  there  is  no 
certainty  that  the  fount  will  run  alike.  The  master-printer, 
therefore,  to  keep  the  entire  letter  in  use,  is  compelled  to 
order  sorts,  and  his  fount  is  thus  constantly  growing  larger. 

A   FOUNT   OF   TYPE. 

A  COMPLETE  fount  of  type  may  be  comprised  under  the 
following  heads : — 

CAPITALS. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ^CE& 

SMALL   CAPITALS. 
ABCDEKGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXVZ^CE& 

LOWER  CASE. 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstu\-wxyzasoeff"fiffiflffl 

ITALIC  CAPITALS. 

A  B  CDEFGHIJKL  M  N  O  P  Q  R  S  TUVWX 
YZ^  CE& 

ITALIC  LOWER  CASE. 

abed  efg  h  i  j  k  I  inn  op  q  r  s  tuvw  x  y  z  a:  oejffiffiflffl 

FIGURES  AND  FRACTIONS. 

I  23456789oX>^.VK%>i/8;^^ 

POINTS  AND  REFERENCES. 

. ; :    ?!-'()[]*  t  t  §  II  H 

BRACES,  DASHES  AND  CO.MMERCIAL  SIGNS. 

$jC°^'^ — ■ — ,_^^-^ fi^sr"©a@^n) 

Four  kinds  of  spaces;  en,  em,  two  and  three  em  quadrates. 

Accents. 

These  are  the  ordinary  sorts  cast  to  a  fount,  and  are  classi- 
fied by  founders  as  long,  short,  ascending,  descending,  kerned, 
and  double  letters. 


CAPITALS.  59 

Long  Letters  fill  the  whole  depth  of  the  face  of  the  body, 
and  are  both  ascending  and  descending,  such  in  the  Roman  as 
Q  and  j,  and  in  the  Italicy. 

Short  Letters  have  the  face  cast  on  the  middle  of  the 
body,  (by  founders  called  shank,)  as  a,  c,  e,  m,  n,  o,  r,  s,  u,  v, 
w,  X,  z,  all  of  which  will  admit  of  being  bearded  above  and 
below  the  face,  both  in  Roman  and  Italic. 

Ascending  Letters  are  all  the  Roman  and  Italic  capitals; 
in  the  lower  case,  b,  d,  f,  h,  i,  k,  1,  t. 

Descending  Letters  are  g,  p,  q,  y,  in  Roman  and  Italic. 

Kerned  Letters  are  types  that  have  part  of  the  face 
hanging  over  either  one  or  both  sides  of  the  body.  In  Roman, 
f  and  j  are  the  only  kerned  letters;  but,  in  Italic,  d,g,j,  l,y 
are  kerned  on  one  side,  and  f  on  both  sides  of  its  face. 
Most  Italic  capitals  are  kerned  on  one  side  of  the  face. 

The  Double  Letters  in  modern  use  are  ff,  fi,  ffi,  fl,  ffl; 
and  these  are  so  cast  to  prevent  the  breaking  of  the  beak  of 
the  f  when  used  before  a  tall  letter.  The  diphthongs  ae  and  ce 
may  be  classed  among  double  letters. 

Printers  divide  a  fount  of  letter  into  two  classes. 

1.  The  upper  case  \  , 

2.  I  he  lower  case  ) 

The  upper  case  sorts  are  capitals,  small  capital  letters, 
references,  dashes,  braces,  commercial  signs  and  fractions. 

The  lower  case  consists  of  small  letters,  double  letters, 
figures,  points,  spaces  and  quadrates. 

CAPITALS. 

LiNDLEY  Murray  gives  the  following  judicious  directions 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  capital  letters : — 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  every  noun  with  a 
capital;  but  as  this  practice  was  troublesome,  and  gave  the 
writing  or  printing  a  crowded  and  confused  appearance,  it  has 
been  discontinued.  It  is,  however,  very  proper  to  begin  with 
a  capital, — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or 
any  other  piece  of  writing;  and, 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period ;  and,  if  the  two  sentences 
are  totally  independent,  after  a  note  of  interrogation  or  excla- 
mation.    But  if  a  number  of  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sen- 

6 


6o  TYPES. 

tences  are  thrown  into  one  general  group,  or  if  the  construc- 
tion of  the  latter  sentences  depends  on  the  former,  all  of  them, 
except  the  first,  may  begin  with  a  small  letter :  as,  Hozv  long, 
ye  simple  ones,  will  ye  love  simplicity  ?  and  the  scorners  de- 
light iti  their  scortiing?  and  fools  hate  knowledge? — Alas! 
how  different!  yet  how  like  the  same  ! 

3.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity:  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the 
Almighty,  the  Supreine  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence,  the  I\les- 
siah,  the  Holy  Spirit. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains, 
rivers,  ships:  as,  George,  Lofidon,  the  Strand,  the  Alps,  the 
Thames,  the  Seahorse. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places:  as, 
Grecian,  Roman,  English,  French,  Italiafi. 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a  colon, 
or  when  it  is  in  a  direct  form:  as,  Ahvays  remember  this 
ancient  maxim :  "Ktiozv  thyself."  —  Our  great  Laivgiver  says, 
"  Take  up  thy  cross  daily,  and  follow  me."  But  when  a  quo- 
tation is  brought  in  obliquely  after  a  comma,  a  capital  letter  is 
unnecessary  :  as,  Solotnoft  observes,  "  that  pride  goes  before  de- 
structioti." 

The  first  word  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly  begin 
with  a  capital:  as.  Temptation  proves  our  virtue. 

7.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of 
books:  as,  Johnson's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language; 
Thomson' s  Seasons ;  Rollings  Ancient  History. 

8.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

9.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  O  are  written  in 
capitals:  as,  I ivrite :  Hear,  O  earth! 

Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals 
when  they  are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the  principal  sub- 
ject of  the  composition. 

The  method  of  denoting  capital  letters  in  manuscript  is  by 
underscoring  them  with  three  distinct  lines. 

SMALL  CAPITALS. 

Small  Capitals  are  in  general  cast  to  Roman  founts  only, 
and  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  stronger  emphasis 
to  a  word  than  that  conveyed  by  Italic.  They  are  likewise 
used  for  running  heads,  heads  of   chapters,  &c.     The  first 


POINTS.  6 1 

word  of  every  section  or  chapter  is  commonly  put  in  small 
capitals;  but  when  a  two-line  initial  letter  is  used,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  word  should  be  in  capitals. 

The  small  capitals  c,  o,  s,  v,  w,  x,  z  so  closely  resemble  the 
same  letters  in  the  lower  case,  that  care  is  required  to  prevent 
intermixing. 

In  manuscript,  small  capitals  are  denoted  by  two  lines 
drawn  under  the  words. 

Italic  words  are  designated  by  a  single  stroke  underneath. 


POINTS. 

Points  consist  of  a  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period  or 
full-point,  mark  of  interrogation,  and  mark  of  admiration. 
Shortly  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the  necessity  of 
stops  or  pauses  in  sentences  for  the  guidance  of  the  reader 
produced  the  colon  and  full-point.  In  process  of  time,  the 
comma  was  added,  which  was  then  merely  a  perpendicular 
line,  proportioned  to  the  body  of  the  letter.  These  three  points 
were  the  only  ones  used  till  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  Aldo  Manuccio  gave  a  better  shape  to  the  comma,  and 
added  the  semicolon ;  the  comma  denoting  the  shortest  pause, 
the  semicolon  next,  then  the  colon,  and  the  full-point  termi- 
nating the  sentence.  The  marks  of  interrogation  and  admira- 
tion were  introduced  many  years  after. 

Perhaps  there  never  existed  on  any  subject  a  greater  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  men  of  learning  than  on  the  true 
mode  of  punctuation.  Some  sprinkle  the  page  with  commas 
almost  as  promiscuously  as  if  from  a  pepper-box,  and  make 
the  pause  of  a  semicolon  where  the  sense  will  bear  only  a 
comma;  while  others  are  extremely  careless,  and  omit  points 
even  when  they  are  needed  to  give  the  true  sense  of  a  passage 
at  the  first  reading. 

The  lack  of  an  established  practice  is  much  to  be  regretted. 
The  loss  of  time  to  a  compositor  occasioned  by  altering  points 
arbitrarily  is  a  great  hardship.  Manuscripts  are  often  placed 
in  the  printer's  hands  without  being  properly  prepared :  either 
the  writing  is  illegible,  the  spelling  incorrect,  or  the  punctua- 
tion defective.  Unless  the  author  will  take  entirely  on  himself 
the  responsibility  of  the  pointing,  it  will  be  better  to  omit 
ever>'  point  in  the  copy,  except  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  rather 


62  TYPES. 

than  confuse  the  mind  of  the  compositor  by  commas  and 
semicolons  placed  indiscriminately,  in  the  hurry  of  writing, 
without  any  regard  to  propriety/^' 

The  Comma  [,]  divides  the  clauses  of  a  long  or  involved 
sentence,  and  commonly  marks  the  shortest  pause  in  reading. 

Commas  are  used  to  denote  extracts  or  quotations  from 
other  works,  dialogue  matter,  or  passages  or  expressions  not 
original,  by  placing  two  of  them  inverted  before  the  first  word 
of  the  passage  quoted,  the  ending  being  denoted  by  two  apos- 
trophes. A  thin  space  is  used  to  keep  the  inverted  commas 
free  from  the  matter.  The  method  of  running  them  down  the 
sides  to  the  end  of  the  quotation  has  been  found  inconvenient, 
especially  where  a  quotation  occurs  within  a  quotation,  or  a 
speech  within  a  speech:  the  proper  method  of  distinguishing 
these  is  by  placing  a  single  inverted  comma  before  the  extra 
quotation,  and  concluding  with  a  single  apostrophe.  Where 
both  quotations  end  together,  put  three  apostrophes,  observing 
after  the  first  to  place  a  thin  space. 

Inverted  commas  were  first  used  by  Guillemet,  a  French- 
man, to  supersede  the  use  of  Italic  letter  in  emphasized 
words.  As  an  acknowledgment,  his  countrymen  call  them 
after  his  name.  French  founders  cast  them  double,  thus  [«»]. 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan,  Philadelphia,  furnish  them  in 
this  way  when  desired. 

A  single  comma  inverted  is  improperly  used  as  an  abbre- 
viation of  the  word  Mac,  as  in  M'Gowen:  c  is  preferable,  as 
McGowen. 

The  Semicolon  [;]  denotes  a  pause  greater  than  that  of  a 
comma,  and  is  used  between  dependent  clauses  of  compound 
sentences. 

The  Colon  [:]  is  employed  in  a  sentence  between  clauses 
less  connected  than  those  which  are  divided  by  a  semicolon, 
but  not  so  independent  as  separate,  distinct  sentences. 

The  Period  or  Full-Point  [.]  serves  to  indicate  the  end 
of  a  complete  sentence.  When  used  in  abbreviations,  it  has 
no  effect  as  a  full  stop  in  the  jiunctuation,  unless  at  the  end  of 
a  sentence.  In  some  works  this  point  is  discarded  as  a  mark 
of  abbreviation,  as  in  Mr  Dr  &c. 

(')  Wilson's  Treatise  on  English  Punctuation  is  a  full  and  explicit  work  on  this 
subject,  and  should  be  studied  by  every  printer  and  author.  It  is  worthy  of  adop- 
tion as  the  standard  authority. 


APOSTROPHE.  (>Z 

Full-points  are  sometimes  used  as  leaders  in  tables  of  con- 
tents, figure-work,  &c. ;  but  dotted  rules  or  leaders  are  more 
economical  for  this  purpose,  as  they  save  considerable  time 
in  the  composition. 

The  sign  of  Interrogation  [?]  is  used  to  denote  a  ques- 
tion. Every  interrogation  or  question  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter,  (unless  several  questions  follow  one  another  in 
connected  succession,)  according  to  the  method  observed  in 
the  Bible,  where  questions  and  responses,  and  the  beginning 
of  sayings,  &c.  are  denoted  by  a  capital  letter. 

The  sign  of  Admiration  or  Exclamation  [!]  denotes 
surprise,  astonishment,  rapture,  and  other  sudden  emotions 
of  the  mind,  whether  of  joy  or  sorrow.  This  sign  is  put  after 
the  interjections  Ah !  Alas !  Oh !  &c. ;  but  there  are  exceptional 
cases,  as.  Ah  me !  Alas  the  day !  &c. 

All  the  points,  except  the  comma  and  the  period,  should  be 
preceded  by  a  hair-space;  the  comma  and  full-point  do  not 
require  any  space  to  bear  them  off. 

The  em  dash  [ — ],  though  not  ranked  as  a  point,  is  often 
used  by  careless  writers  as  a  substitute  for  a  comma  or  semi- 
colon. It  may  be  properly  employed  in  parenthetical  sen- 
tences, and  in  rhapsodical  writing  abounding  in  disconnected 
sentences. 

A  dash  stands  for  a  sign  of  repetition  in  catalogues  of 
goods,  where  it  implies  ditto;  and  in  catalogues  of  books,  where 
a  dash  signifies  ejusdein,  instead  of  repeating  the  author's 
name  with  the  title  of  every  separate  treatise  of  his  writing. 
A  sign  of  repetition  should  never  appear  at  the  top  of  a  page, 
but  the  name  of  the  author,  or  of  the  merchandise,  should 
be  set  out  again  at  length. 

A  dash  likewise  stands  for  to;  as,  chap.  xvi.  3-17;  that  is, 
from  the  third  to  the  seventeenth  verse  inclusive.  At  other 
times  it  serves  for  an  index,  to  give  notice  that  what  follows 
it  is  a  corollary  of  what  has  preceded ;  thus : — 

apostrophe. 

The  apostrophe  [ '  ]  is  a  comma  cast  on  the  upper  edge  of 
a  type,  and  is  used  as  a  sign  of  contraction  or  abbreviation 
of  words  in  poetry  or  familiar  conversation,  as  We're,  o'er, 
don't,  &.C.     In  poetry,  it  should  not  be  employed  where  the 

6* 


64  TYPES. 

verb  ends  with  e,  as  love,  change,  &c.,  but  only  in  cases  where 
the  verb  concludes  with  a  consonant,  as,  reign,  obtain,  &c. 
It  also  marks  the  elision  of  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  words, 
as,  'scape,  or  of  a  syllable,  as,  prentice. 

The  monosyllables  though  and  through  are  sometimes 
shortened  to  tho'  and  thro\  but  very  improperly,  as  they  retain 
the  same  sound,  and  the  abbreviation  cannot  in  the  slightest 
degree  assist  the  versification. 

Words  in  the  possessive  case  are  generally  known  by  having 
'^  for  their  termination. 

All  quotations  which  are  denoted  at  the  beginning  by  in- 
verted commas  are  closed  with  apostrophes.  There  is  no 
space  required  between  the  apostrophe  and  the  matter. 

HYPHEN. 

A  HYPHEN  is  a  sign  of  connection,  and  denotes  that  the  part 
of  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line  belongs  to  the  portion  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next  line. 

A  compositor  who  studies  propriety  and  neatness  in  his 
work  will  not  allow  an  unnecessary  division,  even  in  a  narrow 
measure,  if  he  can  avoid  it  by  overrunning  two  or  three  lines 
of  matter.  In  large  typ<_  and  narrow  measures,  the  division 
of  words  cannot  be  avoided ;  but  care  should  be  taken  that 
hyphens  do  not  occur  at  the  end  of  successive  lines.  In  small 
type  and  wide  measures,  the  hyphen  may  freciuently  be  dis- 
pensed with,  either  by  driving  out  or  getting  in  the  word, 
without  interfering  witli  the  regularity  of  the  spacing.  The 
compositor  who  is  careful  on  this  point  will  find  his  advantage 
in  the  preference  given  to  his  work,  and  in  the  respect  attached 
to  his  character  as  a  master  of  his  business.  Numerous  divi- 
sions down  the  side  of  a  page  and  irregular  spacing  are  the 
two  greatest  defects  in  composition. 

It  is  proper,  if  possible,  to  keep  the  derivative  or  radical 
word  undivided:  as,  occur-rence,  gentle-man,  respect-ful,  &c. 
In  other  cases,  printers  generally  divide  on  the  vowel,  which 
is  an  excellent  method. 

The  hyphen  is  also  used  to  connect  compound  words, 
which  are  formed  of  two  substantives,  as,  bird-cage,  love-letter, 
&c. ;  also  what  are  termed  compound  adjectives,  as,  well- 
built  house,  handsome-faced  child,  &c. 


PARENTHESIS  AND  BRACKET.  65 

The  prepositions  after,  before,  over,  &c.  are  often  connected 
with  other  words,  but  do  not  always  make  a  proper  com- 
pound: thus,  before-mentioned  is  a  compound  when  it  pre- 
cedes a  substantive,  as,  in  the  before-mentioned  place;  but 
when  it  comes  after  a  noun,  as,  in  the  place  before  me?itioned, 
it  should  be  two  distinct  words.'^' 


PARENTHESIS  AND  BRACKET. 

The  use  of  the  Parenthesis  (  )  is  to  enclose  interpolated 
words  or  sentences  which  serve  to  strengthen  the  argument, 
although  the  main  sentence  would  be  complete  without  the 
interpolated  matter. 

(')  Wilson,  in  his  Treatise  on  English  Punctuation,  says,  very  judiciously, — 
The  hyphen  is  employed  in  words  in  such  a  manner  as  is  best  calculated  to  show 
their  origin,  composition,  or  import,  and  to  exhibit  the  syllables  in  their  neatest 
form.     Agreeably  to  this  rule, — 

1 .  Compound  and  derivative  words  are  resolved  into  their  primitives  ;  as,  school- 
tnaster,  ha?tii-7vriiing,  pen-knife,  snuff-box ,  looking-glass  :  arch-angel ,  geo-logy, 
theo-cracy ,  ortho-graphy. 

2.  Prefixes,  affixes,  and  grammatical  terminations  are  separated;  as,  dis-con- 
tinue,  en-able,  trans-port ;  shear-er,  load-ed,  print-ing;  king-doin,  false-hood, 
differ-euce,  comviand-tnent . 

3.  One  consonant  between  two  vowels  is  to  be  joined  to  the  latter  syllable ;  as, 
ta-lent,  fi-tal :  nie-lon,  le-ver  ;  spi-rit,  si-lence  ;  cy-nic ,  ty-ro  :  le-ga-cy ,  }iio-no- 
po-ly.  Except  jr,  and  single  consonants  when  they  belong  to  the  former  portion  of 
a  derivative  word  ;  as,  ex-ile,  ex-ist,  ex-a/nine ;  up-on,  dis-ease,  circum-atnbient. 

4.  Two  or  more  consonants  belong  to  the  latter  syllable,  when  they  are  capable 
of  beginning  a  word;  as,  ta-ble,  sti-fle,  lu-cre,  o-gle,  tnau-gre,  stro-phe,  destroy. 

5.  But  when  the  consonants  cannot  begin  a  word,  or  when  the  vowel  preceding 
them  is  short,  the  first  should  be  separated ;  as,  ab-bey,  ac-cent,  vel-lum,  ab-ject, 
gar-den,  laun-dry,  patn-phlet :  blas-pheme,  dis-tress,  niin-strel. 

It  is  desirable  that  compound  and  derivative  words  should,  at  the  end  of  lines, 
be  divided  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  their  principal  parts.  Thus,  school- 
fnaster  is  preferable  to  schoolmas-ter,  dis-approve  to  disap-prove,  resetzt-ment, 
to  resentment,  ortho-doxy  to  or-thodoxy :  though,  as  regards  the  analysis  of  words 
into  syllables,  the  latter  mode  is  unobjectionable.  From  the  narrowness  of  the 
printed  line,  however,  in  some  books,  the  principle  recommended  cannot  always  be 
adhered  to. 

The  terminations  tion,  sion,  cial,  tial,  and  many  others,  formerly  pronounced  as 
two  syllables,  but  now  only  as  one,  must  not  be  divided  either  in  spelling  or  at  the 
end  of  a  line. 

A  syllable  consisting  of  only  one  letter,  as  the  a  in  cre-ation,  should  not  com- 
mence a  line.  This  word  would  be  better  divided  crea-tion  ;  and  so  all  others  of 
a  similar  kind. 

A  line  of  print  must  not  end  with  the  first  syllable  of  a  word  when  it  consists  of 
a  single  letter ;  ?i?,,  a-bide,  e-nor>nous ;  nor  begin  with  the  last  syllable  when  it  is 
formed  of  only  two  letters  ;  as,  nation-al ,  teach-er,  sitnilar-ly.  For  regard  should 
be  had  to  the  principles  of  taste  and  beauty  as  well  as  to  the  laws  of  syllabication. 


66  TYPES. 

Parentheses  are  not  as  much  used  as  formerly:  authors 
place  their  intercalations  between  commas, — frequently  with 
a  dash  at  the  beginning  and  ending, — which  make  them  quite 
as  intelligible  as  though  they  were  enclosed  between  paren- 
theses. 

Brackets  [  ]  are  seldom  made  use  of,  except  to  indicate 
that  the  word  enclosed  within  them  had  been  carelessly 
omitted  in  the  old  MS.  or  copy,  and  was  now  inserted  by  the 
editor. 

REFERENCES. 

References  are  marks  and  signs  employed  to  direct  the 
attention  of  the  reader  to  notes  in  tlie  margin  or  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  page. 

The  characters  technically  known  by  printers  as  references 
are  the  following,  which  are  used  in  the  order  here  given : — 

Asterisk  *         I      Double  Dagger  %      I      Parallel       1| 
Dagger    f         I      Section  \      I      Paragraph  \ 

In  Roman  church-books,  the  Asterisk  divides  each  verse 
of  a  psalm  into  two  parts,  and  marks  the  place  where  the 
responses  begin :  this  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  de- 
noted by  a  colon  placed  between  the  two  parts  of  each  verse. 
Asterisks  also  denote  an  omission,  or  an  hiatus  in  the  original 
copy;  the  number  of  asterisks  being  multiplied  according  to 
the  extent  of  the  omission. 

The  Dagger,  originally  termed  the  Obelisk,  or  Long  Cross, 
is  frequently  used  in  Roman  Catholic  church-books,  prayers 
of  exorcism,  at  the  benediction  of  bread,  water,  and  fruit,  and 
upon  other  occasions,  where  the  priest  is  to  make  the  sign  of 
the  cross;  but  the  square  cross  (^)  is  the  proper  symbol  for 
the  purpose.  The  square  cross  is  used,  besides,  in  the  pope's 
briefs,  and  in  mandates  of  archbishops  and  bishops,  imme- 
diately before  the  signature  of  their  names.  It  is  not  placed 
among  references. 

Besides  its  use  as  a  reference  mark,  the  Paragraph  is  now 
employed  chiefly  in  Bibles,  to  show  the  parts  into  which  a 
chapter  is  divided.  In  Common  Prayer  Books,  paragraphs 
are  put  before  the  lines  that  direct  the  order  of  the  service, 
and  which  are  called  the  Rubrics  because  they  were  formerly 
printed  in  red. 


ACCENTED  AND  NUMERAL  LETTERS 


67 


The  neatest  references,  when  many  are  required  in  books, 
are  either  superior  letters  or  superior  figures,— thus,  \  ^  ^  or 
thus,  %  *>,  <=.  Superior  letters  are  used  chiefly  in  Bibles  and 
other  books  which  have  more  than  one  sort  of  notes,  and  there- 
fore require  different  references.  When  thus  used,  the  letter  ■> 
should  be  omitted,  as,  from  its  similarity  to  the  S  the  reader 
miafht  at  times  be  led  into  error. 


ACCENTED  LETTERS. 

Letters  called  accented  by  printers  are  the  five  vowels, 
marked  thus: — 

Acute a^ioii 

Grave a^iou 

Circumflex aeiotl 

Diaeresis aeioii 

Long aeiou 

Short afeiStt 

We  may  include  the  French  c,  the  Spanish  n,  the  Portu- 
guese a  and  o,  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  a  and  6,  and  the 
Welsh  w  and  y. 

NUMERAL  LETTERS. 

The  Greeks  at  first  employed  the  letters  of  the  entire 
alphabet  to  express  the  first  twenty-four  numbers;  but  the 
system  was  cumbrous,  and  they  adopted  the  happy  expe- 
dient of  dividing  their  alphabet  into  three  portions,  using  the 
first  to  symbolize  the  9  digits,  the  second  the  9  tens,  and  the 
third  the  9  hundreds;  and,  as  their  alphabet  contained  only 
twenty-four  letters,  they  invented  three  additional  symbols. 
Their  list  of  symbols  then  stood  as  follows: — 


Units. 

Tens. 

Hundreds. 

a  represents 1 

P 2 

V 3 

« ^ 

e 5 

r  (introdnced) 6 

f 7 

7, 8 

I  represents 10 

K 20 

A 30 

iL 40 

V 50 

f 60 

0 70 

p  represents 100 

<r 200 

T 300 

V 400 

<> 500 

X 600 

^ 700 

a>  800 

■?,   A,  A  (introd'd)  900 

ir 80 

eorS 9 

5  or  ^    (introduced)  90 

68  TYPES. 

By  these  symbols,  only  numbers  under  looo  could  be  ex- 
pressed; but,  by  putting  a  mark  called  iota  under  any  symbol, 
its  value  was  increased  a  thousand-fold:  thus,  a  =  looo,  k  =: 
20,000;  or,  by  subscribing  the  letter  JM,  the  value  of  a  symbol 
was  raised  ten  thousand-fold.  For  these  two  marks,  single 
and  double  dots  were  afterward  substituted.  This  improve- 
ment enabled  them  to  express  with  facility  all  numbers  as 
high  as  9,990,000, — a  range  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  Romans  used  M  to  denote 
1000  because  it  is  the  first  letter  of  Mille,  which  is  Latin  for 
1000;  and  C  to  denote  100,  it  being  the  first  letter  of  Centum, 
the  Latin  term  for  100.  Some  also  suppose  that  D,  being 
formed  by  dividing  the  old  M  in  the  middle,  was  therefore 
appointed  to  stand  for  500, — that  is,  half  as  much  as  the  M 
stood  for  when  it  was  whole ;  and  that  L  being  half  a  C,  was, 
fur  the  same  reason,  used  to  denominate  50.  But  the  most 
natural  account  of  the  matter  appears  to  be  this: — 

The  Romans  probably  put  down  a  single  stroke,  I,  for  one, 
as  is  still  the  practice  of  those  who  score  on  a  slate,  or  with 
chalk;  this  stroke  they  doubled,  trebled,  and  quadrupled,  to 
express  two,  three,  and  four:  thus,  I  I,  1 1 1,  1 1 1 1.  So  far  they 
could  easily  number  the  strokes  with  a  glance  of  the  eye ;  but 
they  found  that  if  more  were  added  it  would  be  necessary  to 
count  the  strokes  one  by  one:  for  this  reason,  when  they  came 
to  five,  it  was  expressed  by  joining  two  strokes  together  in  an 
acute  angle,  thus,  V. 

After  they  had  made  this  acute  angle,  V,  for  five,  they  then 
added  single  strokes  to  the  number  of  four,  thus,  VI,  VII, 
VIM,  VMM,  and  then,  as  the  strokes  could  not  be  further 
multiplied  without  confusion,  they  doubled  their  acute  angle  by 
prolonging  the  two  lines  beyond  their  intersecticjn,  thus,  X,  to 
denote  two  fives,  or  ten.  After  they  had  doubled,  trebled,  and 
quadrupled  this  double  acute  angle,  thus,  XX,  XXX,  XX XX, 
they  then,  for  the  same  reason  which  induced  tiiem  to  make  a 
single  angle  first,  and  then  to  double  it,  joined  two  single 
strokes  in  another  form,  and,  instead  of  an  acute  angle,  made 
a  right  angle,  L,  to  denote  fifty.  When  this  was  doubled,  they 
then  doubled  the  right  angle,  thus,  C,  to  denote  one  hundred, 
and,  having  numberetl  this  double  right  angle  four  times,  thus, 
CC,  CCC,  CCCE,  when  they  came  to  the  fifth  number,  as 
before,  they  reverted  it,  and  put  a  single  stroke  before  it,  thus. 


NUMERAL  LETTERS.  69 

13,  to  denote  five  hundred;  and,  when  this  five  hundred  was 
doubled,  then  they  also  doubled  their  double  right  angle,  set- 
ting two  double  right  angles  opposite  to  each  other,  with  a 
single  stroke  between  them,  thus,  CI!],  to  denote  one  thou- 
sand :  when  this  note  for  one  thousand  had  been  repeated  four 
times,  they  then  put  down  ID!]  for  five  thousand,  C C 123  for 
ten  thousand,  and  1 3  3  D  for  fifty  thousand. 

The  corners  of  the  angles  being  cut  off  by  transcribers  for 
despatch,  these  figures  were  gradually  brought  into  what  are 
now  called  numerical  letters.  When  the  corners  of  C I U  were 
made  round,  it  stood  thus,  C  I O,  which  is  so  near  the  Gothic 
C)  that  it  soon  deviated  into  that  character ;  so  that  1 3  having 
the  corners  made  round  stood  thus,  I  O,  and  then  easily  de- 
viated into  D.  C  also  became  a  plain  C  by  the  same  means: 
the  single  rectangle,  which  denoted  fifty,  was,  without  any 
alteration,  a  capital  L ;  the  double  acute  angle  was  an  X ;  the 
single  acute  angle,  a  V ;  and  a  plain  single  stroke,  the  letter  I, 
And  thus  these  seven  letters,  M,  D,  C,  L,  X,  V,  I,  became  nu- 
merals. As  a  further  proof  of  this  assertion,  let  it  be  considered 
that  C I O  is  still  used  for  one  thousand,  and  I O  for  five  hundred, 
instead  of  M  and  D;  and  this  mark,  O,  is  sometimes  used  to 
denote  one  thousand,  which  may  easily  be  derived  from  this 
figure,  CI  3,  but  cannot  be  deviations  from,  or  corruptions  of, 
the  Roman  letter  M.  The  Romans  also  expressed  any  number 
of  thousands  by  a^line  drawn  over  any  numeral  less  than  one 
thousand:  thus,  V  denotes  fivejthousand,  LX  si.Kty  thousand; 
so,  likewise,  M  is  one  million,  MM  two  millions,  &c. 

Upon  the  discovery  of  printing,  and  before  capitals  were 
invented,  small  letters  served  for  numerals;  not  only  when 
Gothic  characters  were  in  vogue,  but  when  Roman  had  become 
the  prevailing  character.  Thus,  in  early  times,  i  b  1 1 1  &  m  were, 
and  in  Roman  type  are  still,  of  the  same  signification  as  capi- 
tals when  used  as  numerals.  Though  the  capital  J  is  not  a 
numeral  letter,  yet  the  lower-case  j  is  as  often  and  as  signifi- 
cantly used  as  the  vowel  i,  especially  where  the  former  is 
employed  as  a  closing  letter,  in  if  iij  V\  iij  iiij  itij,  &c.  In 
Roman  lower-case  numerals,  the  j  is  not  regarded,  but  the  i 
stands  for  figure  i  wherever  it  is  used  numerically. 

During  the  existence  of  the  French  Republic,  books  were 
dated  in  France  from  the  first  year  of  the  Republic:  thus, 
An.  XII.  (1803,)  or  twelve  years  from  1792. 


70  TYPES. 


ARITHMETICAL  FIGURES. 

The  arithmetical  or  Arabic  numerals  are  o,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  9.  Properly  they  should  be  styled  Hindu  or  Indian 
numerals;  for  the  Arabs  borrowed  them,  along  with  the  deci- 
mal system  of  notation,  from  the  Hindus.  They  were  proba- 
bly first  introduced  from  the  East  into  Italy  about  1202;  yet 
they  did  not  come  into  general  use  before  the  invention  of 
printing.  Accounts  were  kept  in  Roman  numerals  up  to  the 
sixteenth  century.  Figures  are  usually  made  one  en  thick; 
but  of  late  a  broader  figure  is  cast  for  newspaper  use,  which 
is  two-thirds  or  six-sevenths  of  an  em  in  width. 

OLD  STYLE  FIGURES. 

Though  uniform  in  height  and  appearance,  we  do  not 
deem  the  modern  figures  an  improvement  on  the  variously- 
lining  figures  formerly  in  vogue,  and  now  happily  coming 
again  into  use.  The  latter  can  be  caught  by  the  eye  with 
greater  ease  and  certainty,  just  as  lower-case  letter  can  be 
read  with  more  facility  than  continuous  lines  of  capitals.  In 
the  new  style  the  3  and  8  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  each  other, 
and  so  with  the  6,  9,  and  0;  but  in  the  old  style  figures  such 
errors  are  quite  unlikely  to  happen,  as  some  ot  them  occupy 
the  centre  of  the  body  only,  and  others  are  ascending  or  de- 
scending characters.     The  example  here  given  will  show  the 

justice  of  our  remarks : 

1234567890 

1234567890 
SCRATCHED  OR  CANCELLED  FIGURES 

I  2  ;i  ^  ^  ^  /7  ^'  ^  p 

Are  used  in  arithmetical  matter  when  certain  figures  re- 
quire to  be  crossed  over  in  an  operation. 

FRACTIONS. 

Common  Fractions,  or  broken  numbers  in  arithmetic,  are 
cast  solid  to  all  sizes  of  type.  A  great  improvement  has  been 
introduced  by  casting  the  numerator  and  denominator  sepa- 
rately, on  bodies  of  half  size,  with  the  line  on  the  under 
figure,  so  that  odd  fractions  of  any  amount  may  be  readily 
formed,  thus :  ^  ^  *    ^75^   \\  \. 


f 


Per,  each. 
At  or  to. 
Percentum. 
Account. 
Cent. 


SIGNS.  71 


SIGNS. 
COMMERCIAL  SIGNS, 

%  .    .  Dollar  or  dollars. 


£  .  .  Libra,  libm,  pound  or 
pounds  sterling. 

/  .  .  Solidus,  solidi,  shilling 
or  shillings. 


MATHEMATICAL,  ALGEBRAICAL,  AND  GEOMETRICAL. 

+  plus,  or  more,  is  the  sign  of  real  existence  of  the  quantity 
it  stands  before,  and  is  called  an  affirmative  or  positive  sign. 
It  is  also  the  mark  of  addition :  thus,  a  +  (^,  or  6  +  9,  implies 
that  a  is  to  be  added  to  b,  or  6  added  to  9. 

—  minus,  or  less,  before  a  single  quantity,  is  the  sign  of 
negation,  or  negative  existence,  showing  the  quantity  to  which 
it  is  prefixed  to  be  less  than  nothing.  But  between  quantities 
it  is  the  sign  of  subtraction:  thus,  a  —  b,  or  8  —  4,  implies  b 
subtracted  from  a,  or  8  after  4  has  been  subtracted. 

=  equal.  The  sign  of  equality,  though  Des  Cartes  and 
some  others  use  this  mark,  x) :  thus,  a=^  b  signifies  that  a  is 
equal  to  b.    Others  use  the  mark  =  to  denote  identity  of  ratios. 

X  into  or  with.  The  sign  of  multiplication,  showing  that 
the  quantities  on  each  side  the  same  are  to  be  multiplied  by 
one  another:  as,  «  X  '^  is  to  be  read,  a  multiplied  into  1^/4X8, 
the  product  of  4  multiplied  into  8.  Wolfius  and  others  use  a 
dot  between  the  two  factors :  thus,  7 . 4  signifies  the  product 
of  7  and  4.  In  algebra  the  sign  is  commonly  omitted,  and  the 
two  quantities  put  together :  thus,  bd  expresses  the  product  of 
b  and  d.  When  one  or  both  of  the  factors  are  compounded 
of  several  letters,  they  are  distinguished  by  a  line  drawn 
over  them:  thus,  the  factum  of  a-\-b  —  c  into  d  is  written, 
dy^a-\-  b  —  c.  Others  distinguish  the  compound  factors  by 
including  them  in  parentheses :  thus,  [a  -\-  b  —  c)  d. 

-T-  by.  The  sign  of  division :  thus,  a^-  b  denotes  the  quan- 
tity a  to  be  divided  by  b.  Wolfius  makes  the  sign  of  division 
two  dots ;  12:4  denotes  the  quotient  of  12  divided  by  4  =  3. 

7  or  c  are  signs  of  majority :  thus,  ay  b  expresses  that  a  is 
greater  than  b. 

Z  or  ~D  are  signs  of  minority, — when  we  would  denote  that 
a  is  less  than  b. 

7 


72  TYPES. 

02  is  the  character  of  similitude  used  by  Wolfius,  Leibnitz, 
and  others.  It  is  used  in  other  authors  for  the  difference  be- 
tween two  quantities  when  it  is  unknown  which  is  the  greater 
of  the  two. 

::  so  is.    The  mark  of  geometrical  proportion  disjunct,  and 
is  usually  placed  between  two  pair  of  equal  ratios :  as,  3  :  6  : 
4  :  8  shows  that  3  is  to  6  as  4  is  to  8. 

:  or  .•.  is  an  arithmetical  equal  proportion:  as,  7  .  3  :  13  .  9 
i.  e.  7  is  more  than  3,  as  13  is  more  than  9. 

n  quadrate,  or  regular  quadrangle, — viz.   n  AB  =  n  BC 
i.  e.  the  quadrangle  upon  the  line  AB  is  equal  to  the  quadrangle 
upon  the  line  BC. 

A  triangle:  as,  A  ABC  =  A  ADC. 

Z  an  angle:  as,  z  ABC  =  Z  ADC. 

_L  perpendicular:  as,  AB  _L  BC. 

□  rectangled  parallelogram,  or  the  product  of  two  lines. 

II  the  character  of  parallelism. 

*  want  of  parallelism. 

v^  equiangular,  or  similar. 

±  equilateral. 

ZZ7  rhomboid. 

<s.  concentrix. 

O  circle. 

L  right  angle. 

'-— ,  integration,  {sunima  or  sum). 

°  denotes  a  degree :  thus,  45°  implies  45  degrees. 

'  a  minute :  thus,  50'  is  50  minutes ;  " ,  '" ,  "" ,  denote 
seconds,  thirds,  and  fourths;  and  the  same  characters  are  used 
where  the  progressions  are  by  tens,  as  it  is  here  by  sixties. 

TT  the  mark  of  geometrical  proportion  continued,  implies 
the  ratio  to  be  still  carried  on  without  interruption:  as,  2,  4,  8, 
16,  32,  64  H-  are  in  the  same  uninterrupted  proportion. 

v/  When  used  without  a  figure  above  it,  indicates  the  square 
root,  and  is  called  the  radical  sign.  Any  other  root  is  expressed 
by  the  index  figure  placed  above  the  sign.  v/i6  is  the  square 
root  of  16,  •^''27  the  cube  root  of  27,  &c. 

s  differ*,  nee  equal. 

— :  the  difiterence,  or  excess. 

Q  or  q,  a  square. 

C  or  c,  a  cube. 

QQ,  the  ratio  of  a  square  number  to  a  square  number. 


S/GA'S. 


73 


In  algebraical  work,  authors  should  be  very  exact  in  their 
copy,  and  compositors  as  careful  in  following  it,  so  that  no 
alterations  may  be  necessary  after  it  is  composed,  the  over- 
running of  this  kind  of  matter  being  troublesome  and  costly. 


CELESTIAL   AND   ASTRONOMICAL   SIGNS. 
The  Tiuelve  Signs  of  the  Zodiac. 


<f  Aries. 
"^  Taurus. 
JJ  Gemini. 
6q  Cancer. 


Q_    Leo. 
Upp  Virgo. 

^    Libra. 
IXl  Scorpio. 


I     7f  Sagittarius. 
I     }^  Capricornus. 

?^  Aquarius. 
i     K  Pisces. 


©  Sun. 

^   Mercury. 
9  Venus. 


77ie  Sun  and  Major  Planets. 

©  Earth. 
cJ'  Mars. 
Qj.  Jupiter. 


\l  Saturn. 
§  Uranus. 
^  Neptune. 


^  Ceres,  ^  Pallas,  Q  Juno,  fi  Vesta,  #  Astraea,  ?  Hebe, 
dl  Iris,  and  the  other  asteroids,  or  minor  planets,  are  now  com- 
monly designated  by  a  circle  enclosing  a  number  which  in- 
dicates the  order  of  their  discovery :  thus,  ®,  d),  (D,  &c. 


Lunar  Signs. 


®  New  Moon. 
5  First  Quarter. 


@  Full  Moon. 
(^  Last  Quarter. 


Aspects  and  Nodes. 

O'  Conjunction;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  under 
each  other  in  the  same  sign  and  degree. 

cP  Opposition;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  diametri- 
cally opposite  each  other. 

A  Trine;  happens  when  one  planet  stands  from  another 
four  signs,  or  120  degrees,  which  make  one-third  of  the  ecliptic. 

n  Quartile;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  three  signs 
from  each  other,  which  make  90  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of 
the  ecliptic. 

■7^  Sextile ;  is  the  sixth  part  of  the  ecliptic,  which  is  two 
signs,  and  make  60  degrees. 


74  TYPES. 

Q^  The  Dragon's  Head,  or  ascending  node,  and 
^  The  Dragon's  Tail,  or  descending  node,  are  the  two  points 
in  which  the  eclipses  happen. 

Planets  that  denote  the  Seven  Days  of  the  Week. 


Dies  Solis — Sunday. 
Dies  Ltuia: — Monday. 
Dies  iMariis — Tuesday. 


Dies  iT/i?rfK;'«— Wednesday. 
Dies  yoz'is — Thursday. 
Dies  I  'eneris — Friday. 


Dies  Saturni — Saturday. 

Many  signs  and  symbols  have  been  invented  by  pseudo- 
astronomers  to  impose  upon  the  credulity  of  the  ignorant; 
among  which  are  signs  to  give  notice  on  what  day  it  is  proper 
to  let  blood,  to  bathe  and  to  cup,  to  sow  and  to  plant,  to  take 
physic,  to  have  one's  hair  cut,  to  cut  one's  nails,  to  wean 
children,  and  many  other  absurdities ;  as  well  as  symbols  that 
serve  to  indicate  hail,  thunder,  lightning,  or  any  occult  phe- 
nomena. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  SIGNS. 

R   Response,  used  in  prayer-books. 

y  Versicle,  used  in  prayer-books  to  denote  the  part  recited 
by  the  priest. 

►J<  or  ■{■  A  sign  of  the  cross  employed  by  Roman  Catholic 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries  before  their  signatures.  In  Roman 
Catholic  prayer-books,  it  also  denotes  the  place  where  the 
priest  is  to  make  tlie  sign  of  the  cross. 

*  Used  in  Roman  Catholic  prayer-books  to  denote  the  place 
in  a  single  verse  where  the  response  begins. 

MEDICAL   SIGNS   AND   ABBREVIATIONS. 

B  stands  for  Recipe,  or  Take. 

a,  aa,  of  each  a  like  quantity. 

It)  a  pound. 

^  an  ounce. 

.5  a  drachm. 

5)  a  scruple. 

j  stands  for  i ;  ij  for  2;  iij  for  3;  and  so  on. 

ss.  signifies  sevii,  or  half. 

gr.  denotes  a  grain. 


METAL  RULES,  BRACES,  ETC.  75 

P.  stands  for  particula,  a  little  part,  and  means  so  much  as 
can  be  taken  between  the  ends  of  two  fingers. 
P.  aeq.  stands  for  partes  csquales,  or  equal  parts. 
q.  s.  quantiirn  sufficit,  or  as  much  as  is  sufficient. 
q.  p.  quantum  placit,  or  as  much  as  you  please. 
s.  a.  secimdem  artem,  or  according  to  art. 

METAL  RULES  OR  DASHES, 

Metal  Rules  or  dashes,  [ ]  like  quadrates,  are  com- 
monly cast  from  one  em  to  three  ems  in  length.  When  cast 
to  line  and  join  accurately,  they  may  be  used  instead  of  brass 
rule. 

BRACES. 

Braces  \_r — * — ^]  are  used  chiefly  in  tables  of  accounts,  bo- 
tanical and  geological  tables,  and  similar  matter.  They  are 
placed  before  or  after  a  series  of  items  of  similar  import;  and 
are  sometimes  used  horizontally  in  the  margin,  to  cut  off  a 
chronological  or  other  series  from  the  proper  notes  or  mar- 
ginal references  of  the  work.  Braces,  two,  three,  and  four  ems 
in  length,  are  now  cast  for  all  sizes  of  common  type. 

Middles  and  e7ids  are  also  cast,  [. ' ,]  which  can  be  filled 

out  with  dashes  to  any  length  required  for  the  brace.  Middles 
and  ends  are  convenient  in  genealogical  tables,  in  which  they 
are  used  the  flat  way,  and  in  which  the  directing  point  is  not 
always  in  the  middle. 

Brass  braces  of  any  length,  for  music  and  jobbing  purposes, 
are  furnished  by  type-founders, 

SPACES. 

Spaces  are  short  blank  types,  and  are  used  to  separate 
one  word  from  another.  To  enable  the  compositor  to  space 
even  and  to  justify  with  nicety,  they  are  cast  to  various  thick- 
nesses,— viz.  five  to  an  em,  [|]  or  five  thin  spaces;  four  to  an 
em,  [|]  or  four  middle  spaces;  three  to  an  em,  [j]  or  three 
thick  spaces;  and  two  to  an  em,  [|]  or  two  en  quadrates, 
which  may  with  propriety  be  reckoned  among  the  number  of 
spaces.  Besides  these,  there  is  what  is  called  the  hair-space, 
which  is  cast  extremely  thin,  and  is  found  useful  in  justifying 
lines  and  assisting  uniformity  in  spacing. 

7* 


76  TYPES. 


TWO-LINE  LETTERS 

ARE  equal  in  depth  to  two  lines  of  the  type  in  which  they 
^  are  to  be  used,  and  of  proportionate  width.  They  form 
the  almost  only  proper  type  lor  principal  lines  in  title-pages, 
and  are  used  at  the  beginning  of  chapters  and  newspaper 
advertisements. 

QUADRATES. 

An  em  quadrate  [H3  i^  a  short  blank  type,  in  thickness 
equal  to  the  square  of  the  letter  of  the  fount  to  which  it  be- 
longs; an  en  quadrate  [|]  is  half  that  size. 

The  first  line  of  a  paragraph  is  usually  indented  an  em  quad- 
rate ;  but  when  the  matter  is  leaded  or  the  measure  is  wide, 
an  em  and  en,  or  two  or  even  three  ems  may  be  used.  An  em 
quadrate  is  the  proper  space  after  a  full-point  when  it  ter- 
minates a  sentence  in  a  paragraph. 

En  quadrates  are  generally  used  after  the  semicolon,  colon, 
&c.,  and  sometimes  after  an  overhanging  letter.  They  are 
useful  in  spacing. 

Em  and  en  quadrates,  and  figures  as  well,  should  be  en- 
tirely exact  and  uniform  in  body,  as  even  a  trifling  variation 
will  be  apparent  when  they  are  arranged  in  table  or  figure- 
work;  and  no  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  a  compositor  can 
rectify  the  zigzag  appearance  caused  by  irregular  types. 

The  inconvenience  arising  from  founts  of  the  same  body 
not  agreeing  in  depth  is  great,  where  the  quadrates,  through 
necessity,  are  sometimes  mixed.  The  founts  cast  by  MacKellar, 
Smiths  &  Jordan  are  not  liable  to  this  charge,  as  their  moulds 
for  all  regular  type  of  a  specific  size  harmonize  perfectly,  and 
the  quadrates  and  spaces  work  together. 

QUOTATIONS. 

Quotations  are  large  blank  type  used  for  filling  up  con- 
siderable spaces  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  chapter,  and 
also  for  job-work.  They  are  cast  to  two  sizes,  and  are  called 
broad  and  narrow.  They  vary  in  size  according  to  the  standard 
of  the  foundry  where  they  are  cast.  They  are  being  super- 
seded, however,  by 


LABOUR-SAVING  QUOTATION  FURNITURE.      77 


LABOUR-SAVING  QUOTATION  FURNITURE. 


3x8  ems 


This  is  cast  with  great  accuracy  to  Pica,  of  assorted  widths 
and  lengths ;  and,  as  its  name  imports,  it  serves  not  only  for 
quotations  in  general  job-work,  but  also  for  furniture. 

STANDARD  METAL  FURNITURE. 


Owing  to  the  large  assortment  of  sizes  contained  in  this 
furniture,  it  is  useful  for  blanking  out  all  varieties  of  work, 
from  the  card  or  circular  to  the  large  hand-bill  or  poster.  As 
the  above  metal  furnitures  are  not  liable  to  warp  or  shrink, 
they  form  a  highly  economical  substitute  for  wooden  reglet. 


Answer  many  of  the  purposes  of  quotations,  but  are  prin- 
cipally useful  as  frames  or  miniature  chases  for  circular  or  oval 
jobs.     The  sizes  are  graduated  from  5X  8  to  i2x  18  Pica  ems. 


78 


TYPES. 


CIRCULAR  QUADRATES. 

These  are  made  of  various  sizes,  so  as  to  form  circles  or 
parts  of  circles  from  one  to  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter. 
Each  piece  is  exactly  one-eighth  of  a  full  circle,  and,  when 
combined  with  similar  pieces,  will  form  quarter,  half,  three- 
quarter,  and  full  circles.  By  reversing  the  combination  of  some 
of  the  pieces,  serpentine  and  eccentric  curves  may  be  made  of 
any  length  or  depth. 

There  are  two  kinds :  inner  quadrates,  with  con\'ex  surface, 
and  outer  quadrates,  with  concave  surface.  The  curved  line  is 
produced  by  placing  the  convex  and  concave  surfaces  parallel 
to  each  other,  so  that  when  locked  up  firmly  they  hold  the 
type  inserted  fjetween  them.  The  other  sides  of  the  quadrates 
are  flat  and  right-angled,  t(j  allow  a  close  introduction  of  type, 
and  an  easy  justification  with  common  quadrates. 

As  these  quadrates  are  perfect  segments  of  a  large  circle, 
they  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished  without  destroying  the 
truth  of  the  curve.  If  the  thin  ends  are  pieced  out  with  com- 
mon quadrates,  good  justification  will  be  rendered  impossible; 
if  they  are  shortened  by  cutting  off,  they  are  ruined.     Bits  of 


LABOUR-SAVING  CURVATURES. 


79 


lead  or  short  pieces  of  card  between  the  curved  surfaces  are 
also  wrong:  they  destroy  that  exact  paralleUsm  which  is 
necessary  for  the  security  of  the  type.  Very  accurate  justifi- 
cation of  the  outer  extremities  of  the  quadrates  is  also  indis- 
pensable. If  the  curved  surfaces  are  kept  parallel,  and  the 
flat  surfaces  kept  square,  no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  using 
them,  and  they  will  prove  a  valuable  aid  in  ornamental  printing. 


LABOUR-SAVING  CURVATURES,  &c. 


Morris's  Adjustable  Line  Formers,  or  Labour-Saving  Cur- 
vatures, do  away  with  bent  leads,  plaster,  wax,  and  other 
methods  of  making  curved  lines.  Their  economical  advan- 
tages, and  the  neatness  and  exactitude  of  curve  secured  by 
their  use,  will  be  appreciated  at  a  glance  by  all  practical  job 
printers. 


8o  TYPES— BRASS  RULES. 


LEADS. 

LEADS  form  an  essential  part  of  a  printer's  outfit,  since  it  is 
-^  scarcely  possible  to  set  up  a  single  page  or  job  in  which 
they  may  not  be  usefully  employed ;  but  their  chief  purpose  is 
for  spreading  the  lines  apart  so  as  to  reduce  the  amount  of  mat- 
ter in  a  page.  Fine  works  are  always  thus  leaded.  They  are 
usually  cast  by  letter-founders  in  a  long  mould,  and  then  cut 
to  the  required  lengths.  The  bodies  are  regulated  by  Pica 
standard,  and  they  are  usually  cast  four,  six,  or  eight  to  Pica, 
but  are  occasionally  varied  from  one  down  to  fourteen  to  Pica. 
Leads  for  jobbing-purposes  are  now  cut  to  graduated  lengths, 
like  labour-saving  rule. 

FLOWERS  AND  BORDERS. 

THE  flowers  and  borders  designed  and  cast  at  the  present 
time  far  surpass  any  made  by  founders  of  earlier  days. 
Their  richness  and  variety  enable  printers  to  execute  delicate 
and  elaborate  work,  rivalling  plate  engraving,  and  afford  a  wide 
scope  for  the  display  of  taste  and  artistic  skill.  The  combi- 
nation borders  are  especially  valuable  from  being  cast  on 
uniform  bodies,  thus  rendering  them  susceptible  of  a  vast 
number  of  changes. 

The  ancient  practice  of  ornamenting  pages  with  head  and 
tail  pieces  of  flowers  and  odd  designs  seems  to  be  coming 
in  vogue  again,  particularly  in  works  printed  in  the  old-style 
type. 

BRASS  RULES. 

RULES  are  required  mainly  for  table-work,  and  for  pages 
-  which  contain  two  or  more  columns.  They  are  also  useful 
in  titles  and  jobs.  Brass  rules  should  never  be  more  than  type 
height,  unless  for  perforating  purposes,  to  divide  railroad 
checks,  &c.  A  shade  lower  would  be  often  better,  as  the 
pressman  would  be  enabled  to  bring  off  their  impression 
more  clearly.  In  table-work,  the  rule  and  figures  should  be 
separated  by  a  lead,  and  all  the  rules  should  fit  closely  and 
accurately. 

The  lately-invented 


BHASS  LABOUR-SAVING  RULE. 


8i 


BRASS  LABOUR-SAVING  RULE 

is  of  immense  economical  advantage  to  the  printer.  Being 
cut  to  a  graduated  scale,  from  one  em  to  fifty  ems  Pica  in  length, 
advancing  in  the  shorter  pieces  by  ens  and  in  the  longer  by 
ems,  all  waste  in  cutting  is  avoided  by  the  printer,  as  rules  of 


any  length  can  be  formed  by  employing  two  or  more  pieces. 
This  rule  is  put  up  in  regular  founts,  of  various  styles,  with 
sufficient  mitred  pieces  for  outside  bordering. 

Metal  space-rules,  cast  by  type-founders,  are  commonly 
used  for  cross-rules  in  table-work ;  but  the  shorter  pieces  of 
labour-saving  rule  will  answer  as  well. 

On  the  next  page  we  insert  a  plan  of  a  case  for  labour- 
saving  rules,  with  boxes  suited  for  the  various  sizes,  in  which 
the  rule  should  be  kept  when  not  in  use. 


82 


LABOUR-SAVING  RULE. 


1 

g 

1 

CO 

1                                                                ^ 

CO 

Tf 

CO 

! 

o 

1 

'I' 

^ 

tC 

i 

1 

s 

-- 

4.     0 

"'  6 

6 

_,,  6 

-1.   o 

^. 

6        "  6 

6 
6 

J 

c^   ° 

- 

-4« 
CO 

-f 

^ 

o              o 

;^ 

3? 

ai 

- 

<N 

rt 

"* 

^ 

-5                     -^ 

- 

« 

a> 

cc 

c5 

o 

m 

1                                        to 

1  = 

=•  " 

o 

1 

^1 

2      -» 

M 

IT 

CO 

J  ?   'XI 

?,' 

CO                1 

*1* 

s    o 

CJ 

1     ^^  1 

■o 

3  i- 

^   .o 

;s 

- 

2 

5     — 

C^ 

o 

- 

E  ;r 

r; 

00 

1   II  ^- 

EARLIEST  WRITTEN  SOUNDS.  ^l 


EARLIEST  WRITTEN  SOUNDS. 

THE  hieroglyphic  is  the  most  ancient  form  of  written 
sounds.  The  earliest  known  monuments  containing  pho- 
netic hieroglyphics  date  about  forty  centuries  ago,  or  six  hun- 
dred years  before  the  time  of  Moses,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  versed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  hieroglyphs.  Yet  nothing 
worthy  of  the  name  of  an  alphabet  existed  till  a  later  period, 
when  the  Phoenicians  invented  a  purely  alphabetic  system, 
but  suppressing  the  vowels,  and  from  this  has  originated  all 
the  modes  of  alphabetic  writing  now  used.^^'  The  Greeks 
introduced  the  vowels  into  their  graphic  system,  and  so 
brought  to  perfection  the  invaluable  invention  of  alphabetic 
writing. 

The  discovery  of  the  Rosetta  stone  furnished  a  clue  to  the 
method  of  deciphering  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics;  and  Dr. 
Young  and  Champollion  were  the  first  to  make  use  of  the 
suggestive  opportunity.  The  words  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra 
were  made  out ;  and  these  served  as  a  key  or  incentive  to  fur- 
ther investigations ;  and  extensive  and  curious  volumes  have 
been  devoted  to  the  interpretation  of  Egypt's  mysterious  in- 
scriptions on  monuments  and  writings  on  papyrus. 

Among  those  who  have  investigated  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphs, Mr.  R.  Lepsius  is  one  of  the  most  practical,  for  he  has 
reduced  the  ancient  characters  to  typographical  uses  for  the 
behoof  of  the  delvers  into  the  earth's  earliest  lore.  He  began 
the  work  soon  after  his  return  from  a  scientific  expedition  to 
Eg>'pt  during  the  years  1842-46,  and  his  hieroglyphic  types 
now  completed  number  more  than  thirteen  hundred.  The 
Prussian  government  furnishing  the  needful  pecuniary  means, 
his  first  task  was  to  ascertain  the  forms  of  hieroglyphic  signs 
which  would  be  most  suitable  for  typographical  purposes,  and 
here  the  labour  was  immense.  After  laborious  research,  he 
reached  the  conclusion,  that  as  European  print  had  been 
formed,  not  from  the  monumental  characters  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  but  essentially  from  the  current  handwriting  of 
documents  on  parchment  and  paper,  so  the  hieroglyphic  type 
should  follow,  not  the  chiseled  or  painted  characters  on  the 

(•)  The  Hebrew  alphabet  is  almost  identical  with  the  Phoenician. 


84 


EARLIEST  WRITTEN  SOUNDS. 


monuments,  but  the  style  of  those  written  on  papyrus.  The 
style  and  proportions  having  been  established,  the  punch- 
cutting  was  mostly  executed  by  Mr.  Ferdinand  Theinhardt, 
the  excellent  Prussian  type-founder,  who  for  a  series  of  years 
has  been  skilfully  engaged  in  producing  the  matrices.  We  are 
indebted  to  Mr.  Theinhardt  for  the  specimens  here  given ;  the 
first  of  which  is  the  hieroglyphic  alphabet,  and  the  second  is 
the  beginning  of  an  ancient  text  found  in  a  leather  roll  of  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Berlin,  referring  to  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  of  the  Sun  at  On  or  Heliopolis  in  Egypt. 


HIEROGLYPHIC    .\LPHABET. 


J 


(Eagle) a 

(Rush  leaf)    .    .    .    a 
J\  (Arm) a. 


(Two  rush  leaves)  t 

^•-— -O  (Bowlj k 

S         (Seat) k 

-B^    (Lion) / 


(Owl) 


14.  Av^A^^  (Water-line) .  .   n 

15.  g  (Carpet)     .   .  .    / 

16.  A  (Knee)   .   .   .  .   q 

17.  <ZZ>  (Mouth)     .   .  .   r 


18. 


(Lower  leg)    .   .   .   f) 
(Horned  snake)        J" 
rO  (Hurdle) //     j    ^9-   CIS: 

20.   O 
(Rope) h 

\\  (Two  lines  aslant)    i 


■(Chair-back, bolt)  s 

(Water  basin)  .  J 

(Semicircle)  .    .  t 

(Bag,   looped 

=3        string).   .   .  Q 

(Hand)  .   .    .    .  / 

(Snake)  .   .   .   .  t 


24-    J!!.  (2      (Chick,  spiral)     « 
25.    O  (Lined  circle)  .   X 


22. 

23 


■^ 


S6  RUNIC. 


RUNIC  ALPHABETS. 

RUNES  were  the  earliest  alphabets  in  use  among  the  Teu- 
-  tonic  and  Gothic  nations  of  Northern  Europe.  The  ex- 
act period  of  their  origin  is  not  known.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Teutonic  run,  a  mystery;  w'hence  runa,  a  whisper, 
and  helruti,  divination ;  and  the  original  use  of  these  characters 
seems  to  have  been  for  purposes  of  secrecy  and  divination. 
Scandinavian  and  Anglo-Saxon  tradition  agree  in  ascribing  the 
invention  of  runic  writing  to  Odin  or  Wodin.  The  countries 
in  which  traces  of  the  use  of  runes  exist  include  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Iceland,  Germany,  Britain,  France,  and 
Spain;  and  they  are  found  engraved  on  rocks,  crosses,  monu- 
mental stones,  coins,  medals,  rings,  brooches,  and  the  hilts  and 
blades  of  swords.  Runic  letters  were  also  often  cut  on  smooth 
sticks  called  ruti-stafas,  or  mysterious  staves,  and  used  for 
purposes  of  divination.  But  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
they  were  at  any  time  in  the  familiar  use  in  which  we  find  the 
characters  of  a  written  language  in  modern  times,  nor  have 
we  any  traces  of  their  being  used  in  books  or  on  parchment. 
We  have  an  explanation  of  the  runic  alphabet  in  various  MSS. 
of  the  early  middle  ages,  prior  to  the  time  when  runes  had 
altogether  ceased  to  be  understood. 

The  systems  of  runes  in  use  among  the  different  branches 
of  the  Teutonic  stock  were  not  identical,  though  they  have  a 
strong  general  family  likeness,  showing  their  community  of 
origin.  The  letters  are  arranged  in  an  order  altogether  distinct 
from  that  of  any  other  alphabetical  system,  and  ha\e  a  purely 
Teutonic  nomenclature.  Each  letter  is,  as  in  the  Hebrew- 
Phcenician,  derived  from  the  name  of  some  well-known  familiar 
object,  with  whose  initial  letter  it  corresponds.  Runes,  being 
associated  in  the  popular  belief  with  augury  and  divination, 
were  to  a  considerable  extent  discouraged  by  tlie  early  Cliristian 
priests  and  missionaries,  whose  efforts  were  directed  to  the 
supplanting  of  them  by  Greek  and  Roman  characters.  But  it 
was  not  easy  suddenly  to  put  a  stop  to  their  use,  and  we  find 
runes  continuing  to  be  employed  in  early  Christian  inscriptions. 
This  was  to  a  remarkable  extent  the  case  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdoms  of  Northumbria,  Mercia,  and  East  Anglia,  where  we 
have  traces  of  runic  writing  of  dates  varying  from  the  middle 


RUNIC.  87 

of  the  seventh  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  Runes  are 
said  to  have  been  laid  aside  in  Sweden  by  the  year  looi,  and 
in  Spain  they  were  officially  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Toledo  in  11 15. 

The  different  systems  of  runes,  all  accordant  up  to  a  certain 
point,  have  been  classed  as  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  German,  and 
the  Norse,  each  containing  different  subordinate  varieties. 
The  Norse  alphabet  is  generally  considered  the  oldest,  and  the 
parent  of  the  rest.  It  has  sixteen  letters  corresponding  to  our 
y,  «,  ///,  o,  r,  k,  h,  n,  i,  a,  s,  t,  b,  I,  m,  y,  but  has  no  equivalent 
for  various  sounds  which  exist  in  the  language,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  sound  of  k  was  used  for^,  d  for  /,  b  for/,  and  11 
and_y  for  v:  o  was  expressed  by  aii,  and  e,  by  ai,  i,  or  ia;  and 
the  same  letter  otherwise  was  made  to  serve  for  more  than  one 
sound.  Other  expedients  came,  in  the  course  of  time,  to  be 
employed  to  obviate  the  deficiency  of  the  system, — as  the  addi- 
tion of  dots,  and  the  adoption  of  new  characters.  But  the  runic 
system  received  a  fuller  development  among  the  Germans  and 
Anglo-Saxons,  particularly  the  latter,  whose  alphabet  was  ex- 
tended to  no  fewer  than  forty  characters,  in  which  seem  to 
have  been  embraced,  more  nearly  than  in  any  modern  alpha- 
bets, the  actual  sounds  of  a  language.  The  table  on  the  fol- 
lowing page  exhibits  the  best  known  forms  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  German,  and  Norse  runic  alphabets,  with  the  names 
and  the  power  of  the  several  letters. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  as  here  given,  are  derived  from  a 
variety  of  MS.  authorities,  the  most  complete  containing  forty 
characters,  while  some  only  e.xtend  as  far  as  the  twenty-fifth  or 
twenty-eighth  letter.  Neither  the  name  nor  the  power  of  some 
of  the  later  letters  is  thoroughly  known,  and  they  are  with- 
out any  equivalents  in  the  Norse  runic  system.  The  German 
runes  are  given  from  a  MS.  in  the  conventual  librar}-  of  St.  Gall, 
in  Switzerland.  Though  the  various  runic  alphabets  are  not 
alike  copious,  the  same  order  of  succession  among  the  letters 
is  preserved,  excepting  that,  in  the  Norse  alphabet,  laugr  pre- 
cedes viadr,  although  we  have  placed  them  otherwise,  with 
the  view  of  e.xhibiting  the  correspondence  of  the  three  systems. 
The  number  of  characters  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  is  a 
multiple  of  the  sacred  number  eight ;  and  we  have  the  evidence 
both  of  a  Swedish  bracteate  containing  twenty-four  characters, 
and  of  the  above  mentioned  St.  Gall  MS.,  that  there  was  a 


RUNIC. 


H) 

u> 
e: 
o 

bo 

z 

•< 

s 

1^      ^^      a&^3^ 

M 

o 

^  T^^  X  CX  z^2^  M?- 

i. 

> 

■s 

s 

0 

z 

c 

—                                                :- 

<D                                                       O 

■4-) 

> 

<: 

^DOCSIoCz^^  ZTi— ^^^-^n  ^N<X'/^  K"SS^^ 

0 

i2          ,      -              —  "^ 

1  >^ 

z 

< 

iSp-OOucjbox:jc:=W—     a 

J2       lU       S 

3! 

X 

:i^x=:-^.iJL  ccjz;:?::-^  :zr-/ ■e^'-r^ 

X 

_s-^ 

^51  z: 

z 

If                               ?|? 

^         ^                                        "7;    ii  — 

y. 

X      +- 

o 

0 

< 
2 

^    3  •:3    o    S    u    bo   :=   ^    c  .iG    bo   al    a 

y. 

0^ 

_bO    u 

<.       li-                                                 i_i 

1 

:ii^/=:^a_-Zi.a^-^X-:=^    '^■7^ ^'-y^ZLj- 

¥- 

-^f- 

A^HXI 

RUNIC.  89 

recognized  division  of  the  alphabet  into  classes  of  eight  letters, 
— a  classification  which  forms  the  basis  of  a  system  of  secret 
runes,  mentioned  in  that  MS.  Of  these  secret  runes,  there  are 
several  varieties  specified  :  in  particular,  i.  lis-rima  and  Lago- 
runa  (of  which  specimens  exist  in  Scandinavia),  consisting  of 
groups  of  repetitions  of  the  character  iis  or  lago,  some  shorter 
and  some  longer,  the  number  of  shorter  characters  in  each 
group  denoting  the  class  to  which  the  letter  intended  to  be 
indicated  belonged;  the  number  of  longer  ones,  its  position 
in  the  class.  2.  Hahal-runa,  where  the  letters  are  indicated 
by  characters  with  branching  stems,  the  branches  to  the  left 
denoting  the  class,  and  those  to  the  right  the  position  in  that 
class.  There  is  an  inscription  in  secret  runes  of  this  descrip- 
tion at  Hackness,  in  Yorkshire.  3.  Stof-runa,  in  which  the 
class  is  indicated  by  points  placed  above,  and  the  position  in 
the  class  by  points  below,  or  the  reverse. 

The  best-known  inscriptions  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  character 
are  those  on  two  grave-stones  at  Hartlepool,  in  Northumber- 
land, on  a  cross  at  Bewcastle,  in  Cumberland,  and  on  another 
cross  at  Ruthwell,  in  Dumfriesshire.  The  inscription  on  the 
west  side  of  Bewcastle  cross,  which  we  give  as  a  specimen  of 
Anglo-Saxon  runes,  is  a  memorial  of  Alcfrid,  son  of  Oswiu, 
who  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  government  of  the 
kingdom  of  Northumbria,  in  the  seventh  century. 


tHHhiH^nw 


It  has  been  thus  deciphered  into  the 
rN-LLMT  Tt  U       Anglo-Saxon  dialect  of  the  period: — 

+THIS     SIGBECUN 
SETT^     HW^TREb 
EM     G^RFvE     BOLDU 
^FT^R     BAR^ 
YMB     CYNING     ALCFRID^ 
GICEG^D   HEOSUM   SAWLUM. 


rri^st^MHFK- 
FhF^mrfFnFi 


Or,  in  Modern  English : — 

This  memorial 

Hwaetred  set 

and  carved  this  monument 

after  the  prince 

after  the  king  Alcfrid 

pray  for  their  souls. 


90  RUNIC. 

The  inscription  on  the  Ruthwell  cross,  after  being  long  a 
puzzle  to  antiquaries,  was  first  deciphered  in  1838  by  Mr.  John 
M.  Kemble,  an  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar.  It  is  written 
alternately  down  one  side  of  the  stone  and  up  another,  and  con- 
tains a  portion  of  a  poem  on  the  subject  of  the  Crucifixion. 
Mr.  Kemble's  interpretation  received  a  very  satisfactory  con- 
firmation by  the  discovery  of  a  more  complete  copy  of  the  same 
poem  in  a  MS.  volume  of  Anglo-Saxon  homilies  at  Vercelli. 

Mr.  D.  M.  Haigh,  whose  researches  have  added  much  to  our 
knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon  runes,  has  endeavoured  to  set  up 
for  them  a  claim  of  priority  over  the  Norse  characters.  Instead 
of  considering  the  additional  Anglo-Saxon  letters  as  a  de- 
velopment of  the  Norse  system,  he  looks  on  the  Norse  alpha- 
bet of  sixteen  letters  as  an  abridgment  of  an  earlier  system, 
and  finds  occasional  traces  of  the  existence  of  the  discarded 
characters  in  the  earliest  Norse  inscriptions,  and  in  the  Scandi- 
navian lis-rutta  and  Hahal-riina,  where  the  letters  are  classi- 
fied in  accordance  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  groups  of  eight. 

The  Scandinavian  kingdoms  contain  numerous  runic  monu- 
ments, some  of  them  written  boustrophedon,  or  with  the  lines 
beginning  alternately  from  the  right  and  left;  and  there  are 
many  interesting  inscriptions  on  Swedish  gold  bracteates.  The 
Celtic  races,  from  their  connection  with  the  Scandinavians, 
became  acquainted  with  their  alphabet,  and  made  use  of  it  in 
writing  their  own  language ;  and  hence  we  have,  in  the  Western 
Islands  of  Scotland  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  runic  inscriptions, 
not  in  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  in  the  Norse  character,  with,  how- 
ever, a  few  peculiarities  of  their  own.  Some  of  the  most 
perfect  runic  inscriptions  are  in  Man ;  others  of  similar  descrip- 
tion exist  at  Holy  Island,  in  Lamlash  Bay,  Arran ;  and  there 
is  an  inscription  in  the  same  character  on  a  remarkable  brooch 
dug  up  at  Hunterston,  in  Ayrshire.  Dr.  D.  Wilson  considers 
that  the  Celtic  population  of  .Scotland  were  as  familiar  with 
Norse  as  the  Northumbrians  witli  Saxon  runes. 

We  sometimes  find  the  Norse  runes  used  to  denote  nume- 
rals, in  which  case  the  sixteen  characters  stand  for  the  numbers 
from  I  to  16;  ar  combined  with  laugr  stands  for  17,  double 
madr  for  18,  and  double  tyr  for  19.  Two  more  letters  are  used 
to  express  higher  numbers,  as  ur  nr,  20;  l/iins  thurs  os,  34.^^* 

(•) Chambers's  Encyclopaedia,  published  by  J.B.  Lippincott&Co.,  Philadelphia. 


SAXON. 


91 


ANGLO-SAXON  ALPHABET. 

THE  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet,  and  the  forms  and  sounds  of 
the  letters,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


Form. 

Sound. 

Form. 

Sound. 

S.    .  a 

a  as  in  bar 

0    . 

0 

0 

B  .    .  b 

b 

P    . 

P 

P 

L  .    .  c 

c  as  in  ckoxct 

R  . 

V 

7- 

D  .    .  b 

d 

i      «    • 

r 

S 

e  .    .  e 

e  as  in  ffint 

i      T  . 

r 

t 

F  .    •> 

/ 

V  . 

\> 

th  {thin) 

n  .    .5 

g  as  in  ^em 

D    . 

5 

th   [thine) 

?>  U  .    .  h 

h 

U  . 

u 

11 

I    .    .  1 

i 

piT  . 

r 

7V 

K  .    .  k 

k 

X  . 

X 

X 

L  .    .  1 

I 

Y  . 

y 

y 

CD  .    .111 

m 

Z   . 

z 

z 

N  .    .  n 

n 

1 

Two  useful  Anglo-Saxon  letters  have  disappeared  from 
modern  English, — namely,  port>th  (//nn),  and  Dor '5  th  (//ane). 

The  Anglo-Saxon  letters  which  vary  from  those  now  used 
were  doubtless  mere  corruptions  of  the  Roman  forms, — viz. 
the  capitals  A,  C,  E,  G,  H,  M,  S,  and  W,  and  the  small  letters 
d,  f,  g,  i,  r,  s,  t,  and  w.  Several  marks  of  abbreviation  were 
used  by  the  Saxons,  as  ^  that,  i  and,  &c.  These  were  not 
original  members  of  the  alphabet,  but  were  introduced  proba- 
bly for  despatch. 

About  the  year  1567,  John  Daye,  who  was  patronized  by 
Archbishop  Parker,  cut  the  first  Saxon  types  which  were  used 
in  England.  In  this  year,  Asserius  Menevensis  was  published 
by  the  direction  of  the  archbishop  in  these  characters ;  in  the 
same  year.  Archbishop  ^Ifric's  Paschal  Homily ;  and  in  1571, 
the  Saxon  Gospels. 

On  the  two  following  pages  will  be  found  a  plan  of  cases 
for  Saxon  types. 


92 


SAXO.V. 


r 

i 

j:  c. 

I 

-i 

i 

i  1 

a 

1 

1 

» 

ffi. 

r 

)^ 

- 

3 

- 

fe= 

'^ 

;^ 

£J. 

- 

= 

Cu 

B 

El 

D 

CC>3 

C 

H-J 

00 

a 

+-f 

1— 

kJ 

- 

BJ 

N 

- 

CQ 

- 

O" 

>         1 

« 

W 

;li 

&. 

;< 

SAXON. 


93 


CO 

05 

o 

j 

t^ 

SI 

1 

«D 

KG 

- 

i 

lO 

b. 

' 

■' 

• 

■* 

u. 

o. 

c 

w 

•>1 

C-1 

o 

Cli 

-^ 

U 

^ 

g 

.:<! 

X) 

s 

M 

• 

§i 

^  la 

u 

E 

3 

irt  '^ 

^ 

Si 

- 

-     1 

1           ""^ 

.&, 

e^ 

- 

N 

tr 

94 


GERMAN. 


GERMAN  ALPHABET. 

OUTSIDE  of  Germany,  there  is  perhaps  no  country  in 
which  German  printing  is  so  extensively  carried  on  as  in 
the  United  States.  We  present  a  table  of  German  characters, 
with  their  names,  and  their  corresponding  forms  in  English. 


German  Form. 

English  Form. 

German  Name. 

91    .   .    a 

A    .   .    a 

ah 

33 

b 

B    . 

b 

bay 

6 

c 

C    . 

c 

tsay 

I 

b 

D    . 

d 

day 

e 

e 

E    . 

e 

a 

3 

f  ff 

F    . 

f  flf 

ef,  ef-ef 

@ 

9 

G    . 

g 

gay 

•& 

0  * 

H    . 

h  ch 

hah,  tsay-hah 

S 

t 

I      . 

i 

e 

3 

i 

J     . 

J 

yot 

i? 

t(f 

K    . 

k  ck 

kah,  tsay-kah 

£' 

I 

L    . 

1 

el 

m 

m 

M    . 

m 

em 

9{ 

n 

N    . 

n 

en 

c 

0 

O    . 

o 

o 

? 

P 

P    . 

P 

pay 

c. 

q 

Q   • 

q 

koo 

SR 

r 

R    . 

r 

er 

€ 

f  i  ff 

S     . 

s  s  ss 

es,  es-es 

«  ft 

sz 

es-tset,  es-tay 

2 

t 

T    . 

t 

tay 

U 

u 

U    . 

u 

oo 

^ 

0 

V    , 

V 

fbw 

2[> 

» 

w  . 

w 

vay 

.¥ 

r 

X   . 

X 

iks 

?l 

0 

Y    . 

y 

ipsilon 

3 

J  6 

Z    . 

z  tz 

tset,  tay-tset 

a  b  u 

a  6  ii  or  ae  CE  ue 

Several  of  the  German  letters,  being  somewhat  similar  in 
appearance,  are  liable  to  be  mistaken  one  for  another.  To  aid 
the  learner,  we  give  such  letters  together,  and  point  out  the 
difference. 

33  (B)  and  S8  (V). 
The  latter  is  open  in  the  middle,  the  former  joined  across. 


GERMAN.  .  95 


6  (C)  and  ©  (E). 

®  (E)  has  a  little  stroke  in  the  middle,  projecting  to  the 
right,  which  (S  (C)  has  not. 

@  (G)  and  ©  (S). 

©  (S)  has  an  opening  above,  @  (G)  is  closed,  and  has  be- 
sides a  perpendicular  stroke  within. 

^  (K),  9t  (N),  9t  (R). 

^  (K)  is  rounded  at  the  top,  3t  (N)  is  open  in  the  middle, 
'^  (R)  is  united  about  the  middle. 

9H  (M)  and  355  (W). 
501  (M)  is  opened  at  the  bottom,  2B  (W)  is  closed. 

5  (b)  and  ^  (h). 

b  (b)  is  entirely  closed  below,  1^  (h)  is  somewhat  open,  and 
ends  at  the  bottom,  on  one  side,  with  a  projecting  hair-stroke. 

f  (f )  and  \  (s). 

f  (f )  has  a  horizontal  line  through  it,  \  (s)  on  the  left  side 
only. 

m  (m)  and  ro  (w). 
m  (m)  is  entirely  open  at  the  bottom,  id  (w)  is  partly  closed. 

r  (r)  and  i  (x). 
E  (x)  has  a  little  hair-stroke  below,  on  the  left. 

t)  (v)  and  V)  (y). 

0  (v)  is  closed,  'Cj  (y)  is  somewhat  open  below,  and  ends  with 
a  hair-stroke. 


96 


GERMAN. 


! 

1         o 

f 

t-PD 

1 

- 

1 

tftr 

: 

^ 

I 

•W 

- 

^ 

A 

§ 

HX 

® 

II 

S 

■*» 

^ 

=t< 

1 

-*i 

^^ 

£. 

fft 

1 

-+f 

Hrt 

i 

- 

=s 

® 

Q 

© 

- 

t= 

- 

■Q 

ds 

£^ 

s? 

-- 

= 

.o 

•5? 

Si) 

gi 

w 

- 

C<\5 

-T 

Q 

cv 

® 

s 

-M- 

CC 

o 

t3) 

&; 

a5 

00 

H— 

^ 

o> 

s? 

<rj 

a 

^ 

» 

- 

CO 

£5 

^ 

Sfc 

W 

GERMAN. 


97 


tJ 

» 

». 

a- 

rates. 

a* 

It: 

ifc 

3- 

■'      1 

tfC 

en 

B 

^^ 

b= 

u- 

' 

•' 

ci. 

« 

^ 

=3 

- 

us. 

;o 

- 

o 

a 

-cJ 

a> 

rf> 

1 

- 

— 

•e 

S 

a 

e  g 

IS  ed 

^ 

- 

f> 

- 

OW 

" 

«- 

*>-   * 

»-» 

■ 

98 


GREEK  ALPHABET. 


GREEK. 


A  SMALL  amount  of  Greek  types  is  indispensable  in  every 
considerable  book  printing-office.  The  Greek  alphabet 
contains  twenty-four  letters,  which  we  give  in  the  following 
table,  with  the  name  of  each  character  expressed  in  Greek  and 
English,  and  its  sound  and  numerical  value. 


THE   GREEK   ALPHABET. 


Forms. 

Names  in  Greek  and 
English. 

Sounds. 

Numer- 
ical 
Value. 

A   .    .    a 

'AA(^a  .   .    .  Alpha 

a 

I 

B    .    .pS 

B/^jTa  .    .    .  Beta 

b 

2 

r  .  •  7 

Ta^jua.    .    .  Gamma 

g 

3 

A   .    .    6 

Ae'Ara .    .    .  Delta 

d 

4 

E     .     .     £ 

•EiZ/iAof  .    .  Epsilon 

e  short 

5 

1    .    .    i 

Zi/ra  .    .    .  Zeta 

z 

7 

H   .    .   ,, 

'Hra   ...  Eta 

e  long 

8 

0  .    .   39 

©^ra  .    .    .  Theta 

th 

9 

I    .    .    I 

'Wra  .    .    .  Iota 

i 

lO 

K     .      .     K 

KciTTTra  .    .  Kappa 

kc 

20 

A  .    .   A 

A(ifi^6o  .    .  Lambda 

1 

3° 

M  .    .  ^ 

Mu .    .    .    .  Mu 

m 

40 

N    .    .    V 

N,j  .    .    .    .  Nu 

n 

50 

H   .   .   f 

ar  .  .  .  .  Xi 

X 

60 

O   .    .    o 

■Qfiixpoi'    .  Omicron 

6  short 

70 

II     .      .     JT 

nr  ....  Pi 

P 

80 

P     .      .     P 

•PcS .    .   .    .  Rho 

r 

100 

2   .    .    o-s 

Xiy/xa     .    .  Sigma 

s 

200 

T     .      .     T 

TaO     .    .    .  Tau 

t 

300 

Y   .    .   u 

'Yi/ziAoi/  .    .  Upsilon 

u 

400 

*..</. 

*r    ....  Phi 

ph 

500 

X    .    .    X 

Xr   ....  Chi 

ch 

600 

♦    .    .    ^ 

*r  .  .  .  .  Psi 

ps 

700 

n  .  .  u 

'n^tya  .   .  Omega 

o  long 

800 

From  a  desire,  probably,  to  imitate  Greek  manuscript,  a 
multitude  of  ligatures,  abbreviations,  and  contractions  of 
letters,  as  well  as  duplicates,  were  cast  by  the  early  type- 
founders. These,  Ijowever,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  have 
been  quite  discarded ;  and  a  fount  of  modern  Greek  is  readily 
accommodated  in  a  single  pair  of  cases.    The  only  duplicated 


GREEK.  99 

characters  in  the  preceding  table  are  /?  and  6,  i9  and  d,  and  a 
and  f.  /3  looks  best  when  used  as  an  initial  letter,  and  6  as  a 
medial.  i?  and  Q  are  used  indiscriminately ;  but  c  is  employed 
as  a  final  letter  only. 

There  are  twelve  diphthongs  or  compound  vowels  in  Greek, 
viz.: — 

Six  proper, — a<,  av,  «,  ev,  o«,  od;  and 

Six  improper, — a,  y,  w,  j^v,  w,  uv.  The  point  under  the  first 
three  letters  denotes  the  iota,  and  is  therefore  called  the  sud- 
script  iota. 


ACCENTS   AND   ASPIRATES. 


Lenis. 
Asper. 
Acute. 
Grave. 
Circumflex. 


^  Lenis  acute. 
^  Lenis  grave. 
"  Asper  acute. 
°  Asper  grave. 


"^  Circumflex  lenis. 
'■  Circumflex  asper. 

Diaeresis. 
■*  Diaeresis  acute. 
*'  Diaeresis  erave. 


Accents  are  nothing  more  than  small  marks  which  have 
been  introduced  into  the  language  to  denote  the  pronunciation 
of  words,  and  aid  its  acquisition  by  learners.  The  ancient 
Greeks  never  used  them,  as  is  demonstrated  from  Aristotle, 
old  inscriptions,  and  ancient  medals.  It  is  not  easy  to  tell 
the  date  when  the  practice  of  writing  with  accents  first  ob- 
tained, though  it  is  probable  not  till  after  the  Romans  began 
to  learn  the  Greek  tongue  and  to  send  their  children  to  study 
at  Athens, — that  is,  about  or  a  little  before  the  time  of  Cicero. 

Accents — by  the  Greeks  called  tovoi^  tones — show  the  rising 
or  falling  of  the  voice  in  pronouncing;  either  separately  in  dis- 
tinct syllables,  or  conjunctively  in  the  same  syllable. 

Wherefore  there  are  two  sorts  of  accents :  two  simple,  viz. 
the  acute,  oS,vq,  figured  thus  ['],  which  denotes  the  elevation 
of  the  voice;  and  the  grave,  liapvq.  shaped  thus  ['],  to  signify 
the  falling  or  depression  of  the  voice:  and  the  circumflex, 
ireptGTTuixEvoc,  which  was  formed  first  of  these  two  lines  or  points 
joined  together  thus  ['^],  and  afterward  was  changed  into  a 
round  sort  of  a  figure  like  an  inverted  upsilon,  thus  [a],  but  at 
length  came  to  be  figured  like  an  s  drawn  crosswise  [~  ]."* 

The  acute  accent  raises  the  voice,  and  aflfects  one  or  more 
of  the  last  three  syllables  of  a  word,  if  it  has  so  many. 

(')  Bell's  Greek  Grammar. 

9« 


loo  GREEK. 

The  grave  depresses  the  voice,  and  affects  the  last  syllable 
only. 

The  circumflex  lengthens  the  sound,  and  affects  either  the 
last  syllable  of  a  word  or  the  last  but  one. 

There  are  two  spirits,  or  breathings:  the  asper  ['],  which 
is  equivalent  to  the  modern  letter  h;  and  the  lenis  ['],  which 
has  no  perceptible  power,  and  indicates  the  bare  opening  of 
the  mouth  and  simple  emission  of  the  voice. 

All  the  words  that  begin  with  a  vowel  have  one  of  these 
breathings  over  them;  but  the  vowel  upsilon  admits  of  no 
other  than  the  spiritus  asper  at  the  beginning  of  a  word. 

In  diphthongs  the  spiritus  is  put  over  the  second  vowel :  as 
avToc,  not  avTog. 

The  letter  p,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  has  an  asper  over 
it,  as,  psu;  and  where  two  ps  meet  in  a  word,  the  first  has  a 
/enis,  and  the  other  an  asper. 

The  apostrophe  ['  ]  is  used  for  cutting  off  the  vowels  a,  e,  <,  o, 
and  the  diphthongs  ai  and  oi,  when  they  stand  at  the  end  of  a 
word  and  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel :  as,  Trap'  av-€>  for 
'Kapa  ahrCj-,  navf  eTieyov  for  ndpra  i'keyov. 

Sometimes  the  apostrophe  contracts  two  words  into  one: 
as,  Ka'yi)  for  tai  ^}  cj ;  kyufiai  for  Q w  ol/xai ;  Kc/Keivog  for  nal 
EKtlvog. 

Sometimes  an  apostrophe  supplies  the  place  of  the  first 
vowel  beginning  a  word :  as  w  'yadh  for  w  ayadi ;  ttov  '^i  for  nov 
tci.    This  is  chiefly  used  in  poetry. 

But  the  prepositions  n-rpl  and  -po  suffer  no  apostrophe  though 
the  next  word  begin  with  a  vowel ;  for  we  write  -n-tpl  vfiuv^  irpb 
i/iov ;  TTEpl  a'urov^  Tzpb  iTui\  &C. 

The  diteresis  ["]  is  put  over  the  last  one  of  t\vo  vowels 
that  come  together,  to  show  that  they  must  be  pronounced 
separately,  and  not  as  a  diphthong:  thus,  av-?)  with  a  diaeresis 
makes  three  syllables ;  but  without  a  diaeresis  av  is  a  diphthong, 
and  makes  air/)  two  syllables. 

Diastole  [?]  is  put  between  two  particles  that  would  bear 
a  different  sense  without  it:  thus,  &,-e  uji  signify  whatever; 
whereas  ore  stands  for  as,  and  bri  for  that.     To,rt  vvith  a  diastole 


GREEK.  lOl 

implies  afid  this ;  but  when  without,  it  answers  to  the  adverb 
then. 

The  sign  of  interrogation,  in  Greek,  is  made  by  a  semi- 
colon [;]. 

The  colon  is  made  by  an  inverted  full-point  [']. 
All  other  points  are  the  same  as  in  English. 

The  compositor  will  find  it  advantageous  to  bear  in  mind 
the  following  rules : — 

1.  No  accent  can  be  placed  over  any  other  than  one  of  the 
last  three  syllables  of  a  word. 

2.  The  grave  accent  never  occurs  but  on  the  last  syllable; 
and,  this  being  the  case,  the  asper  grave  ["]  and  lenis  grave 
[  "  ]  can  be  wanted  only  for  a  few  monosyllables. 

3.  No  vowel  can  have  a  spirit,  or  breathing,  except  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word. 

4.  The  letter  p  is  the  only  consonant  marked  by  a  breathing. 

5.  Almost  every  word  has  an  accent,  but  very  seldom  has 
more  than  one ;  and,  when  this  happens,  it  is  an  acute  thrown 
back  upon  the  last  syllable  from  one  of  those  words  called 
enclitics  {leaning  back),  which  in  that  case  has  none,  unless  it 
be  followed  by  another  enclitic.  In  no  other  case  than  this 
can  a  last  syllable  have  an  acute  accent,  except  before  a  full- 
point,  colon,  or  note  of  interrogation,  when  the  grave  accent 
of  the  last  syllable  is  changed  to  an  acute, — a  circumstance 
which  has  often  led  printers,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  reasons 
for  accenting  the  same  word  differently  in  different  situa- 
tions, to  think  that  there  was  an  error  in  their  copy,  and  thus 
to  make  one  in  their  proof.  Most  errors,  however,  proceed 
from  those  who  do  not  think  at  all  about  the  matter. 


PLAN  OF  GREEK  CASES. 

THE  following  plan  of  cases  for  Greek  type  is  probably 
more  convenient  than  any  other.  A  Roman  case  may 
readily  be  altered  to  accommodate  the  lower-case  sorts. 
Compositors  who  aspire  to  a  full  knowledge  of  their  art 
should  by  all  means  make  themselves  familiar  with  Greek 
and  Hebrew  letters  and  cases. 


GREEK. 


-«« 

•<!!- 

- 

-■o 

•>» 

■•3 

-^ 

""ft* 

-~ 

-o 

^ 

-o 

\ 

:i») 

:R- 

,. 

:0 

;3 

•3 

-AJ 

-S- 

~ 

-<5 

-= 

-3 

^ 

'ft- 

- 

-O 

-- 

-3 

,W 

.C- 

,. 

•o 

•» 

•  3 

«-J 

>iS- 

- 

•o 

•;:2 

•3 

^ 

«»■ 

c. 

'O 

«s 

'3 

.. 

.:> 

- 

.o 

•  a 

.3 

\ 

■u. 

•s- 

-~ 

-c 

•  ;^ 

-3 

\ 

-W 

'S> 

-- 

•o 

-s 

-3 

il 

"*^ 

'ft- 

- 

■= 

i» 

'^- 

,l 

'^ 

-e- 

,^ 

-o 

'S 

'3 

; 

■•^ 

■=- 

■~ 

-o 

•^ 

■3 

i        = 

I>I 

■& 

3- 

'C 

■■c 

N 

;^ 

^ 

-3 

=- 

^o 

-a 

H 

S 

H 

a- 

-  = 

•  c 

1 

< 

< 

H 

•c 

■  e 

'- 

ti 

a. 

- 

CJ- 

•  = 

•  = 

n 

i 

- 

= 

■> 

S- 

•a 

- 

,            1 

1 
< 

1 

® 

o 

X 

<■ 

-c 

-           i 

■:: 

1 

GREEK. 


103 


-a 

*< 

=  -3 

1 
i 

1 

-<:i. 

^ 

5* 

'     1 

-^ 

:& 

=1. 

1 

=% 

► 

■' 

1 

1        "- 

c- 

b 

3 

I        <= 

- 

0 

0 

. 

a 

1 

:? 

»o 

- 

^ 

L. 

Eg 

>^ 

r< 

a 

*   <A 

»o  a. 

1 

=0 

s<: 

^r 

J 

1           X 

i 

<3a. 

— Jl 

I04 


HEBRE  W  ALPHABE  T. 


HEBREW. 

THE  Hebrew  alphabet  has  twenty-two  letters.  Column 
No.  I  of  the  following  table  indicates  the  force  of  Hebrew 
letters  when  read  without  points.  Column  No.  2  gives  their 
force  when  the  language  is  printed  with  the  Masoretic  points 
or  vowels,  which  are  of  later  date  than  the  letters.  The  names 
and  numerical  value  of  the  characters  are  also  shown. 


THE 

HEBREW   ALPHABET. 

Names. 

No.  I. 

No.  2. 

NuMKR. 

Value. 

X.  .  .  . 

3.  .  .   . 

.  Aleph 
.  Beth 

Sounded    a    in 
•war  {vowel) 

A  gentle  aspirate 
£h 

X 

2 

J  .  .  .   ■ 

.  Gimel 

g  hard 

Gk 

3 

1.  .   .   . 

.  Daleth 

Dh 

4 

n.  .  .  . 

.  He 

a  in  hate  {^vouk) 

A  rough  aspirate 

5 

1  .  .  .  . 
I  .  .  .  . 

.  Vau 
.  Zain 

u  vmuel,  or  be- 
fore a  vowel,  w 

Ds 

6 
7 

n.  .  .  . 

.  Cheth 

Hh 

8 

D.  .  .  . 

.  Teth 

Th 

9 

2  1  final 

.  Jod 
.  Caph 

Like  ee  in  Eng- 
lish (vmuel ) 
k  or  c  hard 

J   consonant,  or   the 
softer  y 

10 
20 

S..    .    . 

.  Lamed 

30 

0  D  final 

.  Mem 

40 

J  ?  final  . 

.  Nun 

so 

D.  .   .   . 

.  Samech 

Soft  J 

60 

£3  n  final 

.  Ain 
.  Phe 

0  long  {vowel ) 

kg,  or  hgh ,  the  rough- 
est aspirate 

70 
80 

y  y  final 

.  Tzaddi 

J  soft 

90 

p     ..    . 

.  Koph 

k  or  gu 

100 

1      .    .    . 

.  Resch 

200 

W    ■   ■ 

,  Shin  or  Sin 

s  hard 

300 

n  .  .  . 

.  Thau 

400 

HEBRE  If: 

■o5 

LETTERS   THAT   HAVE   A   LIKENESS 

Beth                    Caph 

TO   OTHERS. 

Daleth 
Vau                    Zain 

1              r 

Caph 

1 

Jod 

Resch 

Nun 

I 

Mem 

0 

Samech 

D 

Gimel 
Jl 

Nun 

He 

n 

Cheth 

n 

Thau 

n 

Teth 
D 

Mem 

Ain 

Tzaddi 

The  dividing  of  Hebrew  words  not  being  permitted,  the  five 
following  letters  are  cast  broad  to  enable  the  compositor  to 
justify  the  lines  without  irregular  spacing : — 

Aleph        He        Lamed        Mem        Thau 

js:      n      S        an 

Hebrew  has  no  capitals,  and  therefore  letters  of  the  same 
shape,  but  of  a  larger  body,  are  used  at  the  beginning  of 
chapters  and  other  parts  of  Hebrew  works. 

Hebrew  reads  from  the  right  to  the  left,  which  is  the  case 
with  all  other  Oriental  languages,  except  Ethiopic  and  Arme- 
nian. In  composing  it,  the  general  method  is  to  place  the  nick 
of  the  letter  downward,  and  after  putting  the  points  to  the  top, 


io6 


HEBREW. 


to  turn  the  line  and  set  the  points  that  come  under  the  letters. 
If  the  letter  has  but  one  leg,  the  point  is  placed  immediately 
under  it ;  but  where  the  letter  has  two  legs,  it  is  put  under  the 
centre. 

The  Masoretic  points  or  vowels  are  subjoined  under  the 
consonant  3  (beth). 


I.   The  Lotig  Vowels. 
Kametz  ...      -r  aa        ^  baa 

Tzeri ee        3  bee 

Long  Chirek       *  ii        ^3  bii 

Cholem  ...      ^  oo  "133  boo 

Shurek   ...      ?)  jiu      ?)3  buu 


2.    77/1?  Short  Vowels. 
Patach -  a    3  ba 

Scegol •••  e    3  be 

Little  Chirek    .    .      '  i     3  bi 

Kametz-chataph  .      t  t;    3  bo 

T 

Kibbutz ■•.  «    3  bu 


3.  Shevas,  which  imply  a  Voivel  to  be  wanting. 


Simple  Sheva H 

Patach  furtive H 


Chataph  Patach 
Chataph  Soegol 


r\a 


Chataph  Kametz X^  o 


The  last  three  are  called  compound  shevas;  and,  in  fact, 
they  are  only  the  short  vowels,  to  which  the  simple  sheva  [ :  ] 
is  joined. 

ACCENTS. 

Hebrew  accents  are  either  mere  points,  or  lines,  or  circles. 

Those  which  are  mere  points  or  dots  consist  of  one  or  two 
or  three  such  points,  and  are  always  placed  above  the  middle 
of  the  accented  letter,  thus. 

One,  called  rebia,  3  '•£•  sitting  over. 
That  con-     Two,  called  royal  zakeph  katon,  3-  of,  the  little  ele- 
sistin<'-  of  1      '!''(tlor,  from  its  figure,  which  is  composed  of  up- 
right points. 

.Three,  called  royal  segolta,  3,  an  inverted  ["]. 

The  lines  are  either  upright,  inclined,  or  transverse. 
The  upright  is  either  solitary  or  with  points  or  dots. 


HEBREW. 


107 


between  two  words,  3'D'  termed />^jzV/^,  or  musical  pause, 
and  terminating  a  song. 

Metheg,  ^  or  bridle,  an  euphonic  accent  at  the 

beginning  of  a  word. 
Royal  silluk,  3,  end,  which  is  placed  before  [ :  ], 

sophpasuk,  i.e.  toward  the  end. 


or 

under  a 

word, 


With 
points, 
namely, 


two,  above  the  letter,  royal  zakeph  gadhol,  jj,  the 

great  elevator,  strains  the  sound, 
one,   below   the   letter,    royal   tebhir,   2,  broken 

sound,  from  its  figure  and  tone. 


Inclined  lines  hang  either  above  or  below. 


the  right 


the  left 


Leader /"rt^// /a,  2.  extension,  e.xtends  the  voice 
or  sound,  and  is  placed  above  the  last  letter 

of  the  word.     Subservient  kadma,  2,  ante- 
cedent, to  the  leader  geresh ;  and  is  placed 
above  the  penult  or  antepenult  letter. 
1 
'Leader  geresh,.^,  expulsiojt,  is  sung  with  an 

impelled  voice. 

Gereshajim,  2,  kvo  expellers,  from  the  figure 
being  doubled. 


the  left 


the  right — Leader  tiphcha,  ^,  fatigue,  from  the  song  or  note. 

I. 

Of  subservient  merca,  ^,  letigthening  out,  from 

its  lengthening  out  the  song  or  note. 
Merca  kephnla,  2.  «  double  lengthening  out 

from  its  music  and  figure. 

The  transverse  line  is  either  right  or  curved :  thus,  "  '^. 

The  right  line  is  placed  between  two  words,  connecting 
them  together,  thus,  2"^-  ^"^  i^  called  tnaccaph,  i.e.  connec' 
tion. 

The  curved  or  waved  line,  ^.  is  called  leader,  zarka,  or  the 
disperser,  from  its  modulation  and  figure. 

Circles  are  either  entire  or  semi. 

The  entire  circle  is  placed  always  above,  and  has  a  small 
inclined  line  attached  to  it. 

10 


lo8  HEBREW. 

Either  on  the  left,  when  it  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  word, 

9 

J,  and  is  called  leader  telisha  the  greater,  or  the  great  evulsion. 

Or  on  the  right,  when  it  is  placed  at  the  end,  ^,  and  is  called 
subservient  telisha  the  less. 

On  both  together,  ^,  called  leader /■(/rw^/ara,  the  horns  oj 
the  heifer,  from  its  modulation  and  figure. 
The  semicircle  is  either  solitary  ox  pointed. 
The  solitary  is  either  angular  or  reflected. 

I  Subser\ient  hillui,  ^,  elevated,  from  the  eleva- 

<      tion  of  the  voice. 

\Munach,  ^,  placed  below,  from  its  position. 

{'Leader  jethith,  2,  drawing  hack, irom.  its  figure. 
Subservient  Diahpach,  ^,  inverted,  also  from 
its  figure. 

f  either  single  subservient  darga,  ^,  a  degree. 
The  reflected  |  *   j  ii'        * 

1  or  double,  leader,  shalsheleth,  ]!},  a  chain,  from 

[     its  figure  and  modulation. 

When  joined  with  other  points,  it  is  either  above  or  below 
the  letter. 

When  above  the  letter,  it  has  a  small  line  attached  to  it  on 
the  left,  ^)  leader  paser,  the  disperser  from  the  diffusion  of 
the  note. 

When  below  the  letter,  it  is  pointed  either  downward,  2, 
called  royal  athnach,  respiration,  as  the  voice  must  rest  upon 

it,  and  respire;  or  upward,  ^,  ?,\\hser\iQnX,  Jerah-ben-Jomo,  the 

y 
moon  of  its  own  day,  from  its  figure. 


on 
the  right 


on 


T 


PLANS  OF  HEBREW  CASES. 

HE  first  plan  shows  a  common  case  for  Hebrew  without 
points ;  the  second  exhibits  a  pair  of  cases  with  points. 


HEBREW. 


109 


*-\ 

D 

11 

1 

- 

*— 

ID 

- 

3 

L 

:^ 

n_ 

•• 

1 
1 

tA 

- 

--  y 

H  1 

• 

t 

^ 

c 

r        1 

^ 

- 

■- 

ii 

^ 

% 

- 

n 

r 

0 

i 

"3 

a 

.x- 

c 

■ 

si 

n 

n 

n 

n 

:^ 

1 

a 

*-» 

- 

(- 

J— 

r- 

^ 

— 

17- 

:w 

no 


HEBRE  W. 


_y 

c 

o 

- 

•- 

i: 

~ 

e 

•J 

- 

D 

o 

-. 

:j 

L 

J 

< 

^ 

!tj 

1 

n 

V 

- 

tj 

\ 

c 

- 

0 

SJ 

H                  1 

z 

i 

-1 

E 

•n 

i 

1 

1 

i 

a 

•n 

\A 

1 

j     T 

.r 

r 

r 

13 

C 

1 

- 

- 

-- 

*- 

J^ 

D 

XT 

n 

n      n 

n 

r2_ 

r 

r 

r 

r 

' 

' 

1 

^ 

>i 

% 

n 

n 

CI 

1 

i 
1 

HEBREW. 


- 

ill 

Ell 
erg 

•siniod 

1 

' 

J|i 

m. 

1 

i                 ;. 

«-j 

^1 

•♦ 

1 

Q 

- 

11 

■■ 

^ 

a 

r 

J^ 

»• 

- 

J^ 

% 

c 

n 

n- 

r 

•s 

1 

c       ! 

Q 

i      es 
1     '1 

n 

D 

.j^ 

1    ^g- 

1 

1 

n 

1 

i 

1 

r— 

a 

— 

rr 

:w 

- 

10« 


J?USSIAA\ 


RUSSIAN    ALPHABET. 


Form. 

Sound. 

Form. 

Sound. 

For 

M. 

Sound. 

A 

.  a 

ah,  a. 

I  M 

.  M 

m. 

m 

lU 

ch. 

E 

.  6 

b. 

H 

.   H 

n. 

m. 

m 

sh-tch. 

B 

.   B 

V. 

0 

.    0 

0  or  ah 

-h 

■L 

>nuie  e. 

r 

.  r 

g,  gh. 

II 

.  n 

P- 

LI 

ti 

we,  ee. 

A 

.  A 

d. 

P 

•  P 

r. 

B 

B 

half-mute  e. 

E 

.  e 

yai  or  ai. 

C 

.  c 

/larj  s  or  ss. 

^ 

t 

yai  or  ai. 

ae 

.   3K 

zsh. 

T 

.   T 

t. 

3 

3 

ai. 

3 

.   3 

z. 

y 

•  y 

oo. 

K) 

H) 

you,  ew. 

H 

.   U 

ee. 

$ 

.  * 

f,  ph. 

.a 

fl 

yah. 

I 

.  i 

ee. 

X 

.   X 

kh,  c^. 

e 

e 

f,  ph. 

K 

.   K 

k. 

u 

.  u 

ts. 

V 

V 

e. 

JI 

.   JI 

1  (guttural). 

^ 

.  q 

ch,  tch. 

•a 

a 

short  e. 

r,  X,  e,  .1,  m,  t,  ti,  L,  i,  fi,  0,  ii,  are  the  only  letters  whose  pro- 
nunciation offers  any  difficulty. 

r  has  a  sound  nearly  like^  in  the  Eno-hsh  \ioxA  goose,  as  in 
rij^uia,  a  peaj-;  read  grooshah.  But  it  has  a  guttural  sound 
not  found  in  English,  and  which  nearly  resembles  that  of  the 
German  c^.  This  sound  is  especially  perceivable  in  the  middle 
of  a  word  when  the  r  is  followed  by  a  consonant,  also  at  the 
end  of  a  word,  as  in  Horni,  the  nails ;  read  ndi)tee.  In  inflec- 
tions aro,  jiro,  oro,  ero  of  adjectives  and  pronouns,  the  letter  r  is 
pronounced  as  v;  as  in  Ki)aeHaro,  of  beautiful ;  read  krasnavah. 

E  has  three  different  sounds:  i.  In  Russian  words,  and  in 
all  syllables  in  which  it  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  e  has  a  sound 
like  that  o{ yai,  when  the  j'  is  nearly  sunk  in  the  pronunciation, 
as  in  CMy,  to  him;  read  yaimod.  2.  At  the  beginning  of  words 
from  foreign  languages,  and  at  the  middle  and  end  of  a  word 
when  preceded  by  a  consonant,  it  has  the  sound  of  e  in  met, 
as  in  Cepery,  I  guard ;  read  bayregod.  3.  In  the  termination 
CKX  of  diminutives,  in  all  the  characteristic  inflections  of  cases 
in  the  nouns,  and  of  persons  in  the  verbs,  in  fact,  in  almost  all 
words,  this  letter  when  accented  has  a  sound  nearly  like  tliat 
of  short  yo  or  o;  as  in  Kyji(5Kx.  a  little  sack;  BCAeuit,  thou 
leadest;  MC^t,  the  honey;  read  koolydk,  vaidyosh,  myod.     This 


RUSSIAN.  113 

sound  yo  or  0  of  the  letter  e  is  commonly  distinguished  by  a 
diaeresis  over  the  vowel,  as  KyjieKX,  Beaeiut,  mcjix. 

Jl  has  a  guttural  sound  nearly  analogous  to  the  English  w. 
IlHcajii.,  he  wrote,  read  pisaze/  or  p'lsou. 

Jlh  has  a  soft  sound,  as  in  the  French  word  bouillon. 

X  corresponds  to  the  German  c^.  It  is  a  strong  aspiration 
that  nearly  resembles  the  sound  k  when  pronounced  hastily 
from  the  throat;  as  in  XBa^d,  the  praise ;  read  khvahlah. 

lU,  unites  the  sound  of  lu  and  m,  as  in  iuhtt.,  the  shield ;  read 
shtcheet. 

t.  This  letter  has  no  sound;  the  preceding  consonant,  the 
last  letter  of  the  word,  ought  to  be  pronounced  a  little  hollow, 
as  in  &ou'i>,  a  bea?i ;  read  bop. 

LI  has  a  sound  nearly  like  we  when  the  zv  is  pronounced 
rapidly ;  as  in  CyKBLi,  the  letters,  read  bookwe.  It  has  this  sound 
after  the  consonants  6,  b,  m,  n,  * ;  but  after  another  consonant 
it  is  'a  thick  e,  as  in  cmht.,  the  son  ;  read  seen. 

L.  This  letter  at  the  end  of  a  word  has  a  sound  nearly  like 
that  of  the  very  short  e.  When  followed  by  a  consonant  in 
the  middle  of  a  word  it  is  mute,  but  is  pronounced  when 
followed  by  a  vowel;  as  in  sHaxB,  to  knozu ;  read  znaht. 

^  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  has  the  sound  of  yai;  as  in 
§CTB,  to  eat ;  read  yaist.  In  the  middle  of  a  word  it  is  pro- 
nounced yai,  the  sound  of  y  being  almost  sunk ;  as  in  Hin., 
no;  read  nyaitt.     At  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  sounded  ay. 

E  when  accented  has  the  sound  of  the  diphthong  yah  ;  as  in 
flMa,  a  pit;  read  yahmah.  But  if  not  accented  it  is  pronounced 
yai,  as  in  ajpo,  a  ball;  read  yaidro.  The  pronoun  ea,  of  her, 
is  pronounced  yaiyd,  and  the  syllable  ca  of  pronominal  verbs 
is  pronounced  sah,  as  in  cxapaxBCfl,  to  exert  one's  self;  read 
stahrahtsah. 

0  is  pronounced  as  English  o;  but  if  unaccented  it  takes 
the  sound  of  ah,  as  in  ko.ioko.i-b,  a  bell ;  Ko.ioKO-ia,  bells;  read 
kdlahkall,  kahlakahla. 

H  is  a  short  e,  pronounced  very  rapidly,  as  in  aafl,  give ; 
read  dai  or  die,  giving  utterance  to  a  short  e  after  the  vowel. 

In  general  the  pronunciation  of  Russian  words  depends 
especially  upon  the  tonic  accent,  which  is  no  longer  printed 
in  Russian  books,  except  to  distinguish  some  homonymous 
words,  or  some  grammatical  inflections  of  similar  forms ;  as 
s^MoK-B,  a  castle,  and  saMOK-B,  a  lock;  read  zahmok  and  zahmok. 


114 


MUSIC. 


MUSIC  TYPE. 

IN  no  department  of  letter-founding  has  the  progress  of 
improvement  been  more  decided  and  satisfactory  than  in 
the  production  of  music  type.  The  finest  work  of  the  music- 
stamper  cannot  surpass  the  ingenious  combinations  of  the 
type-founder  and  printer.  The  music  of  which  specimens  are 
here  given  is  cast  on  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  any  intelli- 
gent workman  may  learn  to  compose  it  with  facility.  Brass 
lines  are  now  furnished  with  founts  when  desired. 


EXCELSIOR. 


EXCELSIOR  No.  2. 


^^^^^^^m 


DIAMOND  No.  i. 


DIAMOND  No.  2 


W-f^ 


^  ^  l«N  DIAMOND  No.  3.  .    .        , 


AGATE  No.  3. 


:^jriSja 


I 


NONPAREIL  No.  3. 


^S^=P 


MUSIC. 


"5 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  BODIES. 


—3. 


—  ^ 


— ^ 


1 1 6  MUSIC. 


MUSIC  COMPOSITION. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  rudiments  of  the  art  of  music  is 
essential  to  the  correct  composition  of  music  type ;  for, 
unless  the  compositor  is  acquainted  with  the  relative  time- 
values  of  the  notes  and  rests,  he  cannot  space  them  properly. 

The  manuscript  copy  is  given  to  the  compositor,  with  direc- 
tions regarding  the  dimensions  of  the  page  required  and  the 
size  of  type  to  be  employed.  He  counts  the  number  of  mea- 
sures in  the  piece,  and  allots  to  each  measure  the  amount  of 
ems  in  length  which  the  page  will  permit,  so  that  there  shall 
be  a  general  equality  of  space  throughout  the  piece. 

In  instrumental  music,  and  in  pieces  which  are  not  interlined 
with  poetry,  the  compositor  will  set  two  or  more  staves  simul- 
taneously, ranging  the  leading  notes  in  the  lower  staves  pre- 
cisely under  the  corresponding  ones  in  the  upper  staff;  that  is, 
a  certain  amount  of  space  in  each  staff,  in  a  brace,  must  contain 
the  same  amount  of  time-value.  Where  lines  of  poetry  are 
interspersed,  as  in  ballads  and  in  church  music,  the  staves 
are  necessarily  set  singly;  and  in  composing  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  staves  the  workman  must  therefore  constantly 
refer  to  the  first,  in  order  to  make  the  staves  correspond. 

A  good  compositor  will  be  careful  to  make  the  lines  overlap 
each  other,  brick-wise,  and  not  allow  a  joint  to  fall  directly 
under  another.  Masters  who  aim  to  do  cheap  rather  than  good 
work  have  the  music  lines  cast  double  or  triple,  to  expedite 
composition.  Such  work  has  a  very  slovenly  look,  as  the  joints 
of  the  lines,  coming  under  one  another,  are  apparent  in  the 
entire  depth  of  the  staff.  We  have  seen  books  set  in  this 
manner,  in  which  all  the  lines  seem  to  be  composed  of  dotted 
rule,  instead  of  a  continuous  stroke. 

The  compositor  should  be  careful  to  make  the  stems  of  all 
the  notes  in  a  page  of  the  same  length,  e.xcept  those  of  grace- 
notes,  which  should  be  about  half  as  long. 

PLAN   OF  CASES. 

THE  following  plan  of  cases  was  arranged  by  the  music 
typographer,  J.  M.  Armstrong  of  Philadelphia,  expressly 
for  the  founts  of  nuisic  cast  by  The  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jor- 
dan Co.,  specimens  of  which  are  shown  on  page  114.  A  table 
of  comparative  bodies  is  given  on  page  115. 


MUSIC. 


117 


( 

[ 

1 

1 

-sar 

-ISBT 

J3- 

J3-            Q|0 

( 

[ 

( 

' 

\ 

*^ 

_£^ 

_fcj 

p 

( 

{ 

\ 

a*t*fc 

_M. 

^ 

( 

V 

([ 

i 

=**: 

-ua^ 

Ct5 

( 

^ 

([ 

^ 

^ 

D<! 

< 

_«K 

«tl 

(1 

fl 

\ 

1 

1 

\ 

- 

y 

4^ 

( 

t 

( 

( 

( 

m 

m 

A 

V 

\ 

r 

# 

tft 

« 

* 

+ 

- 

1 

V 

« 

/r 

# 

1 

f 

\ 

1 

1 

5k 

% 

w 

/ 

1 

1 

\ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

t 

f 

\ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

V 

r 

V 

r 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

i 

i 

\ 

1 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

V 

IT 

V 

f 

ii8 


MUSIC. 


\    \ 

y 

^^ 

War 

^== 

== 

1 

rj- 

« 

^ 

f 

^ 

»ar 

r- 

ss. 

:v 

T\ 

TV 

H 

=  1  s 

cr 

J  « 

^ 

■\ 

Ji 

2V 

m 

E  S 
=  1 

^     3 

M   cr 

• 

- 

- 

i 

4- 

0^ 

c 

- 

— 

1 

^m 

- 

r 

- 

1 

L 

1 

iXI 

- 

J_L 

J_ 

1 

J-l_ 

U 

J_ 

«L 

«. 

« 

'• 

• 

1 

1 
1 1 

1 

a. 

• 

. 

S^ 

<i 

Si 

«L 

IWtL 

1  1  1  1  1 

1  1   1  1  1 

% 

« 

JML 

%_ 

«         !i 

"•l 

■^ 

1 

J 

1 

J 

■ 

m. 

««L 

1 

1 

1 

J 

MUSIC. 


119 


/" 


V. 


^ 


^ 


fF 


^ 


* 


%• 


«         ^ 


V       I 


11 


I20 


MODERN  CONVENIENCES. 


MODERN  CONVENIENCES. 

AT  no  time  since  the  invention  of  their  art  have  printers 
■L\  been  so  fully  supplied  as  at  present  with  typographic 
implements  for  producing  exact  and  beautiful  work.  In  height 
of  body,  harmony  and  style  of  face,  and  excellence  of  material, 
modern  type  is  doubtless  superior  to  any  heretofore  made; 
but  the  most  striking  progression  of  type-founding  is  in  the 
beauty  and  variety  of  ornamental  letters  and  borders,  and  in 
these  the  American  founders  have  taken  the  lead.  A  glance 
at  their  late  Specimen  Books  proves  the  truth  of  this  as- 
sertion. Among  late  novelties  produced  by  The  MacKel- 
LAR,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co.  are  several  beautiful  series  of 
ingenious  adjustable  characters  for  the  ornamentation  of  dis- 
play lines,  both  straight  and  elliptical.  A  specimen  is  given 
below.  Other  appliances  for  job-printing  are  noted  on  pages 
300-310. 


r^^^- 


'i^ 


y        ^l^ESXQm%3^     \ 


THE   ART   OF    COMPOSITION. 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


W 


EXPERIENCE  proves  that  the  appren- 
tice foreshadows  the  workman,  just  as 
surely  as  the  bend  of  the  twig  foretells  the 
inclination  of  the  tree.  The  upright,  obe- 
dient, industrious  lad  will  become  a  steady, 
skilful,  and  capable  man,  as  unmistakably 
as  the  perverse,  idling,  careless  boy  will 
ripen  into  a  lazy,  dissolute,  and  worthless 
fellow.  The  fact  is,  a  boy  is  measurably  the 
maker  of  his  own  destiny ;  and  if  he  fails  to 
acquire  a  master-knowledge  of  the  trade  to 
which  he  is  put,  it  will  mainly  be  because  he  did  not  at  his 
outset  determine  to  be  a  master-workman.  Good  morals  and 
steady  industry  are  indispensable. 

When  a  lad  who  possesses  these  qualities  proposes  to  learn 
the  art  and  mystery  of  printing,  it  should  be  inquired  of  him, 
Has  he  had  a  fair  common-school  education  ?  Is  he  a  perfect 
speller?  Has  he  a  turn  for  reading?  Is  his  eyesight  good? 
Is  he  under  fifteen  years  of  age?  A  true  affirmative  answer  to 
all  these  queries  will  entitle  him  to  the  position  of  reading 
and  errand-boy.  He  is  told  the  hours  at  which  he  is  to  come 
and  go,  and  a  strict  punctuality  is  enjoined  upon  him.  He 
sweeps  the  room, — he  sorts  out  the  pi,— he  learns  the  position 

121 


COMPOSITION. 


of  the  various  letters  in  the  case.  A  year  spent  in  this  way  is 
an  excellent  preparative  for  "going  to  case,"  or  learning  the 
art  of  composing  type. 

When  he  is  put  to  composition,  he  is  told  to  set  up  one  line 
and  show  it  to  the  foreman  or  to  the  journeyman  under  whose 
care  he  may  be  placed.  The  errors  in  the  line  are  pointed  out 
to  him,  and  he  is  required  to  correct  them  himself.  When  the 
words  are  perfectly  correct,  he  justifies  the  line  tight  enough 
to  prevent  it  from  falling  down  when  the  composing-stick  is 
slightly  inclined,  and  yet  sufficiently  loose  to  enable  him  to 
lift  it  out  with  ease.  In  thus  spacing  out  the  line,  the  blanks 
between  the  words  must  be  so  graduated  that,  when  the  matter 
is  printed,  all  the  words  will  appear  at  equal  distances  apart. 
No  matter  how  impatient  he  may  be  to  get  on,  he  must  be 
drilled  at  this  exercise  till  he  becomes  a  thorough  master  of  it. 
The  grand  doctrine  to  be  instilled  into  him  at  first  is,  to  do  his 
W'ork  well  and  correctly;  swiftness  will  follow  as  a  natural 
consequence.  He  sets  a  second  line;  and  after  it  has  been 
made  faultless  he  proceeds  with  the  third,  and  so  on  till  the 
stick  is  full.  The  utmost  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  every 
letter  and  every  line  in  an  exact  vertical  position ;  and  when 
he  essays  to  empty  the  stick  he  must  be  taught  to  lift  the  entire 
mass  in  one  square  solid  body,  and  to  place  it  squarely  and 
vertically  on  the  galley.  If  the  lines  are  allowed  to  slant  either 
backward  or  side  wise,  it  is  difficult  afterward  to  make  them 
stand  accurately. 

After  the  apprentice  has  become  thoroughly  conversant 
withtheshapeof  every  type,  and  can  distinguish  "u"from  "n," 
"b"  from  "q,"  and  "d"  from  "p,"  he  is  allowed  to  distribute 
type  for  his  own  use.  He  is  taught  to  take  up  at  one  time  no 
more  matter  than  he  can  conveniently  grasp  in  his  left  hand, 
which  he  holds  so  that  the  light  falls  on  the  face  of  the  type, 
and  his  eye  can  readily  read  it.  In  distributing  the  various 
letters,  he  takes  a  word  or  two  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger of  his  right  hand,  and  the  tyi)es  are  lightly  dropped  into 
their  respective  boxes. 

At  the  outset,  and  as  he  proceeds,  the  novitiate  must  be 
cautioned  against  the  acquisition  of  bad  habits;  such  as  swing- 
ing the  body  as  the  types  are  picked  up,  nicking  the  type 
against  the  stick  several  times  before  placing  it  in  line,  stand- 
ing on  one  leg,  &c. 


COMPOSITION.  1 2  3 


While  avoiding  these  ridiculous  practices,  a  learner  must 
acquire  (if  he  does  not  possess  them  already)  certain  habitudes 
or  principles  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  successful  effort. 
The  first  is 

Punctuality.  He  must  conscientiously  observe  the  time- 
rules  of  the  office  in  coming  and  leaving.  The  early  hours  are 
the  best  for  work;  and  the  mind  being  cheered  by  the  con- 
sciousness of  doing  right,  the  body  feels  the  influence,  and  is 
strengthened;  and  when  the  quitting  hour  arrives,  the  amount 
of  work  accomplished  will  satisfy  himself  and  his  master  too. 
The  most  successful  masters  have  been  distinguished  for 
punctuality.  The  apprentice's  time  is  not  his  own,  but  his 
master's  property ;  and  wasting  it  by  want  of  punctuality,  or 
idling  during  his  master's  absence,  is  simply  equivalent  to 
stealing.    The  second  point  is 

Obedience.  The  apprentice  has  no  right  to  question  orders 
given  by  the  master  or  his  deputy.  His  duty  is  promptly  to 
do  as  he  is  told,  without  grumbling  or  dissatisfaction.  Let 
him  remember  that  he  is  under  orders,  and  that,  if  he  ever 
expects  to  learn  how  to  command,  he  must  learn  in  his  youth 
how  to  obey.  He  will  promote  his  own  interests  by  seeking 
to  anticipate  his  master's  wishes,  and  by  endeavouring  to  make 
himself  so  useful  that  his  services  cannot  well  be  dispensed 
with.     Akin  to  this  is 

Courtesy.  Good  manners  in  a  youth  are  wonderfully  pleas- 
ing, and  effectively  aid  in  his  advancement.  Courtesy  toward 
his  master  is  a  matter  of  course,  and  deserving  of  little  com- 
mendation; but  he  must  be  courteous  to  customers  when 
sent  out  on  an  errand,  and  courteous  to  the  workmen  in  the 
office.  By  this  means  he  will  secure  good-will,  and  many  a 
friendly  hint  will  be  given  to  him  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
the  art.  The  habit  when  fixed  will  bless  him  and  others  as 
long  as  he  lives. 


PLAN  OF  CASES. 

THE  following  schemes  show  the  order  in  which  the  let- 
ters are  kept  in  cases  in  this  country.  In  some  offices, 
however,  slight  deviations  will  be  found, — such  as  the  trans- 
position of  the  comma  and  w,  y,  p,  &c. 

11* 


124 


COMPOSITION. 


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POSITIOX— LAYING  TYPE.  127 


POSITION. 

THE  standing  position  of  a  compositor  should  be  perfectly 
upright,  without  stiffness  or  restraint;  the  shoulders 
thrown  back,  the  feet  firm  on  the  floor,  heels  nearly  closed, 
and  toes  turned  out  to  form  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees. 
The  head  and  body  should  be  kept  perfectly  steady,  except 
when  moving  from  the  Roman  to  the  Italic  case,  the  operations 
of  distributing  and  composing  being  performed  by  the  various 
motions  of  the  arm,  from  the  shoulder-joint  alone;  and  if,  to 
reach  a  box  placed  in  the  further  part  of  the  cases,  to  put  in 
or  take  out  a  letter,  he  should  incline  the  body  by  a  slight 
motion,  he  should  immediately  resume  his  erect  position. 
The  height  of  a  compositor  and  his  frame  should  be  so  adjusted 
that  his  right  elbow  may  just  clear  the  front  of  the  lower  case 
by  the  a  and  r  boxes,  without  the  smallest  elevation  of  the 
shoulder-joint;  his  breast  will  then  be  opposite  the  space,  h, 
and  e  boxes.  Sitting  at  work  should  be  rarely  permitted,  ex- 
cept for  lameness,  weakness,  old  age,  or  other  infirmity ;  and 
then  the  stool  should  be  a  small  piece  of  board  fastened  to  a 
single  leg.  Habit  will  render  a  standing  position  familiar  and 
easy;  perseverance  in  conquering  a  little  fatigue  will  be  amply 
repaid  by  the  prevention  of  knock  knees,  round  shoulders, 
and  obstructed  circulation  of  the  blood  and  respiration  of  the 
lungs. 

LAYING  TYPE. 

UNWRAP  carefully  the  page  received  from  the  type- 
founder, and,  laying  it  on  a  galley,  soak  it  thoroughly 
with  thin  soap-water,  to  prevent  the  types  from  adhering  to 
one  another  after  they  have  been  used  a  short  time.  Then,  with 
a  stout  rule  or  reglet,  lift  as  many  lines  as  will  make  about  an 
inch  in  thickness,  and,  placing  the  rule  close  up  on  one  side 
of  the  bottom  of  the  proper  box,  slide  off"  the  lines  gently, 
taking  care  not  to  rub  the  face  of  the  letter  against  the  side  of 
the  box.  Proceed  thus  with  successive  lines  till  the  box  is 
filled. 

Careless  compositors  are  prone  to  huddle  new  types  to- 
gether, and,  grasping  them  up  by  handfuls,  plunge  them  pell- 
mell  into  the  box,  rudely  jostling  them  about  to  crowd  more 
in.     This  is  an  intolerable  practice. 


128  .  DIS  TRIE  UTING. 


The  type  left  over  should  be  kept  standing  on  galleys,  in 
regular  order,  till  the  cases  need  replenishment.  A  fount  of 
five  hundred  pounds  of  Pica  may  have,  say,  four  cases  allotted 
to  it ;  the  same  amount  of  Nonpareil,  from  eight  to  ten  cases. 

DISTRIBUTING. 

WHEN  a  learner  can  infallibly  distinguish  from  each  other 
the  letters  b  and  q,  d  and  p,  n  and  u,  and  1  and  I,  he 
may  be  allowed  to  distribute  type  for  himself. 

The  head  of  the  page  being  turned  toward  him,  the  learner 
sets  a  composing-rule  behind  the  portion  to  be  lifted,  and  then, 
placing  his  thumbs  against  the  rule  and  his  forefingers  against 
the  top  line,  while  his  remaining  fingers  press  together  both 
sides,  he  raises  the  matter  quickly.  Then,  inclining  sidewise 
his  right  hand,  he  removes  the  left,  and  allows  the  matter  to 
balance  momentarily  in  his  right,  while  he  doubles  in  the  third 
finger  and  stretches  out  the  thumb  of  the  left  for  the  reception 
of  the  matter,  which  he  at  once  places  in  it,  the  rule  lying  as 
a  support  on  the  third  finger,  while  the  thumb  and  other  fin- 
gers embrace  the  sides.  He  should  take  up  but  a  few  lines  at 
a  time,  until  he  acquires  facility  in  lifting.  Large  handfuls 
should  always  be  avoided,  as  the  weight  is  fatiguing  and 
weakening  to  the  wrist. 

Keeping  the  handful  in  an  inclined  position,  so  that  he  may 
readily  read  the  lines,  he  takes  up  as  many  letters  as  he  can 
conveniently  hold  between  his  fingers, — an  entire  word,  if 
practicable, — and  drops  the  types  slantingly,  but  with  face 
upward,  into  the  several  boxes. 

The  first  aim  of  the  learner  must  be  accuracy,  even  though 
his  progress  be  slow.  Correct  distribution  aids  in  clean  com- 
position. In  time  he  will  be  able  to  drop  his  types  rapidly, 
with  hardly  a  glance  at  the  boxes;  and,  while  his  fingers  are 
fiying  aljout  correctly  and  expeditiously,  his  eyes  will  take  in 
the  next  word  to  be  distributed;  thus  proceeding  till  the  case 
is  filled. 

In  distributing,  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  in  placing 
the  various  spaces  in  their  appropriate  boxes.  A  mixing  of 
spaces  characterizes  tlie  botch. 

The  letter-board  should  always  be  kept  clean,  and  the  bot- 
tom as  well  as  the  face  of  the  form  well  washed  before  it  is 


COMPOSING.  1 29 


laid  on  the  board  and  unlocked;  for,  if  any  dirt  remain  in  the 
type  after  the  form  is  unlocked,  it  will  sink  into  the  matter. 
This  precaution  taken,  the  pages  should  be  well  opened,  and 
the  whole  form  washed  till  the  water  appears  to  run  from  it  in 
a  clean  state.  If  the  form  is  very  dirty,  it  is  best  to  lock  it  up 
again  and  rinse  the  bottom  of  it,  and  proceed  as  before. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  dry  the  letter  at  the  fire  after 
distributing.  In  this  case,  the  type  should  not  be  used  until  it 
is  perfectly  cold,  as  very  pernicious  effects  arise  from  the  anti- 
mony in  the  composition  of  which  the  type  is  made.  The 
noxious  vapour  which  arises  is  sufficient  warning  of  the  effects. 
The  compositor  ought  always  to  avoid  it  as  a  pestilence 
which  will  affect  his  respiration  and  his  sinews,  inducing 
lung-complaints,  and  causing  paralysis  of  the  hand  or  contrac- 
tion of  the  fingers.  Where  it  can  be  conveniently  managed, 
it  is  better  to  distribute  at  night,  or  before  meals,  so  that  the 
letter  may  dry  without  artificial  heat. 


COMPOSING. 

WHEN  copy  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  compositor,  he 
should  receive  directions  respecting  the  width  and 
length  of  the  page ;  whether  it  is  to  be  leaded,  and  with  white 
lines  between  the  breaks;  and  whether  any  particular  method 
is  to  be  followed  in  the  punctuation  and  in  the  adoption  of 
capitals.  These  instructions  being  given,  the  compositor  will 
make  his  measure  to  the  number  of  ems  directed,  which  is 
done  by  laying  them  flatwise  in  the  composing-stick,  and  then 
screwing  it  up  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  the  slide  from 
moving.  He  then  fits  a  composing-rule  to  the  measure,  and, 
his  case  being  supplied  with  letter,  he  commences  his  work. 

The  left  hand,  which  contains  the  composing-stick,  should 
always  follow  the  right,  which  takes  up  the  letters.  If  the  left 
be  kept  stationary,  considerable  time  is  lost  in  bringing  each 
letter  to  the  stick,  because  the  right  hand  has,  consequently, 
to  traverse  a  much  greater  space  than  is  necessary.  The  eye 
should  always  precede  the  hand,  constantly  seeking  for  the 
ne.xt  letter  while  the  fingers  are  picking  up  one  just  selected. 
Each  letter  should  be  taken  up  by  the  upper  end.  This 
method  will  effectually  prevent  any  false  motion,  and  preclude 


13°  COMPOSING. 


the  necessity  of  turning  the  letter  when  in  the  hand.  If  pos- 
sible, a  sentence  of  the  copy  should  be  taken  at  one  time,  and, 
while  putting  in  the  point  and  quadrate  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence, the  eye  may  revert  to  the  copy  for  the  next.  It  is  to 
dexterity  in  these  particulars  that  compositors  are  indebted 
for  swiftness.  The  time  thus  gained  is  very  considerable, 
while  all  appearance  of  bustle  or  fatigue  is  avoided.  By  taking 
a  sentence  into  the  memory  at  one  time,  the  connection  of  the 
subject  is  preserved,  and  the  punctuation  rendered  less  difficult. 
Those  who  are  careful  in  distribution  find  the  advantage  of 
it  in  composition.  Foul  or  slovenly  workmanship  is  disgrace- 
ful. To  avoid  this,  a  compositor  should  accustom  himself  to 
glance  over  each  line  as  he  justifies  it,  and  correct  any  error 
as  he  proceeds,  which  he  may  do  with  little  impediment  to 
his  progress. 

SPACING. 

Uniformity  in  spacing  is,  vmquestionably,  a  most  important 
part  of  a  compositor's  occupation ;  this  requires  both  care  and 
judgment,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  the  mind  of  the  beginner.  Close  spacing  is  as  unwork- 
manlike as  wide  spacing,  and  neither  ought  to  be  permitted 
except  in  very  narrow  measures;  and,  frequently,  even  then 
with  care  it  might  partly  be  prevented.  What  is  commonly 
called  the  thick  space  is  the  proper  separator  between  words ; 
though  this  rule  cannot  always  be  adhered  to  in  narrow 
measures  when  large  type  is  used.  It  is  not  sufficient  merely 
to  have  a  line  here  and  there  uniformly  spaced :  a  careful  com- 
positor will  give  every  page  that  uniformity  of  appearance 
which  is  a  chief  excellency.  The  beginner  should  remember 
that  it  is  better  to  do  little,  and  do  that  little  well,  than  to  put 
together  a  great  number  of  letters  without  any  regard  to 
accuracy  and  uniformity. 

Where  a  line  is  evenly  spaced,  and  yet  requires  justification, 
the  additional  space  should  be  put  between  those  words  in  the 
line  where  it  will  be  least  observable  :  viz.  a  d  and  an  h,  being 
tall,  i^erpendicular  letters,  will  admit  an  increase  of  space 
between  them,  but  not  more  than  a  middle  and  thin  space  to 
a  thick-spaced  line ;  and  an  additional  space  may  be  placed 
after  a  kerned  letter,  the  beak  of  which  may  bear  upon  the  top 
of  an  ascending  letter, — as  the  f  followed  by  h,  &c. 


COMPOSING.  131 


The  same  rule  should  be  observed  where  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  spacing  of  a  line,  less  space  being  required  after  a 
sloping  letter  than  after  a  perpendicular  one.  The  comma 
requires  only  a  thick  space,  but  the  other  points  should  have 
a  hair  space  before  and  an  en  quadrate  after  them,  except  the 
full-point,  which  should  have  an  em  quadrate,  as  terminating 
a  sentence.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  reduce  the  spacing 
generally,  the  spaces  after  the  points  must  be  altered  in  the 
same  proportion.  Spaces  are  cast  to  such  regular  gradations 
that  the  compositor  can  urge  no  reasonable  excuse  either  for 
bad  justification  or  improper  spacing. 

In  matter  to  be  stereotyped,  a  hair  space  should  be  placed 
after  the  letter  f  and  other  kerned  letters  when  they  stand  at 
the  end  of  the  line. 

JUSTIFYING. 

Accurate  justification  is  absolutely  essential,  as  the  letters 
will  be  warped  sidewise  in  a  loose  line,  making  it  impossible 
to  get  a  fair  impression  from  the  type.  Besides,  the  letters  are 
liable  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  suction  of  the  rollers,  to  the  de- 
triment of  the  form  and  the  press.  The  instructor  of  an 
apprentice  should  occasionally  pass  his  finger  along  the  side 
of  matter  set  by  him ;  and  if  the  lines  should  not  prove  evenly 
justified,  they  should  be  put  into  the  composing-stick  again 
and  properly  corrected. 

HEAD-LINES. 

Head-lines  are  generally  set  in  small  capitals  of  the  same 
fount,  or  in  Italic,  and  sometimes  in  capitals.  Italic  capitals 
of  letter  somewhat  smaller  than  the  body  of  the  work,  with 
folios  of  a  proportionate  size,  have  a  neat  appearance. 


The  usual  rule  for  note-type  is  two  sizes  less  than  the  text 
of  the  work :  thus,  to  Pica  work.  Long  Primer ;  Small  Pica, 
Bourgeois;  Long  Primer,  Brevier.  Side-notes  are  usually 
smaller  in  proportion.  When  side-notes  or  references  drive 
down  below  the  lines  of  the  text  to  which  they  refer,  the  expe- 
dient of  cut-in  notes  must  be  resorted  to.    This  is  a  difficult 


132  COMPOSING. 


part  of  a  compositor's  business,  and  requires  skill  and  patience 
to  adjust  all  parts,  so  that  every  line  of  note  and  text  may  have 
proper  and  equal  bearing.  The  reglet  or  lead  between  the 
lines  of  matter  and  the  side-note  must  be  cut  with  as  much 
nicety  as  possible  to  the  length  of  the  text,  as  far  as  where  the 
note  is  to  run  under ;  and,  having  accurately  adjusted,  by 
means  of  the  quotations  and  justifiers,  the  situation  of  the  first 
line  of  the  note,  such  lead  or  reglet  is  added  to  the  text  as  will 
make  it  precisely  correspond  in  depth  with  the  lines  of  note 
that  stand  on  the  side  before  turning:  the  remainder  of  the 
note  is  then  set  in  a  long  measure,  to  correspond  in  width  with 
the  text,  reglet,  and  side-note ;  and  the  page  is  made  up  with 
note,  or  the  text  begun  again  after  the  note  is  finished.  In 
Bibles  with  notes  and  annotations,  in  law-books,  and  other 
works,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  page  exhibits  several  of 
these  alternate  frameworks  of  note  and  text,  which,  if  done 
well,  display  a  workman's  skill  to  great  advantage. 

BLANKING. 

If  the  work  is  very  open,  consisting  of  heads,  whites,  &c., 
the  compositor  must  be  particularly  attentive  to  their  depth ; 
so  that  though  the  white  may  be  composed  of  difterent-sized 
quadrates,  yet  their  ultimate  depth  must  be  equal  to  the  regu- 
lar body  of  the  type  the  work  is  done  in ;  otherwise  the  register 
of  the  work  will  be  incomplete.  The  pressman  cannot  make 
the  lines  back  if  the  compositor  is  not  careful  in  making  up 
his  matter. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

The  first  line  of  a  new  paragraph  is  indented  an  em  quad- 
rate, of  whatever  type  the  work  may  be ;  though,  when  the 
measure  is  very  wide,  two  or  even  three  ems  are  preferable. 
By  this  means  the  paragraph  is  more  strongly  marked,  the 
indention  of  an  em  only  being  scarcely  perceptible  in  a  long 
line.  Authors  vary  materially  in  the  mode  of  making  para- 
graphs. Some  carry  the  argument  of  a  position  to  a  great 
length  before  they  relieve  the  attention  of  tlie  reader;  while 
others  break  off  at  almost  every  place  that  will  admit  only  of 
a  full-point.  But  the  author's  plan  is  to  be  followed,  unless  he 
direct  otherwise.  Authors  should  always  make  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  paragraph  conspicuous  to  the  compositor,  by 


COMPOSING.  133 


indenting  the  first  line  of  it  far  enough  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  preceding  line  in  case  it  should  be  quite  full. 

It  is  a  practice  too  prevalent  among  compositors  to  drive 
out  a  word  at  the  close  of  a  paragraph,  or  even  to  divide  it,  in 
order  to  reap  the  advantage  of  a  break-line.  Part  of  a  word, 
or  a  complete  word,  in  a  break-line,  if  it  contain  no  more  than 
three  or  four  letters,  is  improper.  It  should  be  the  business 
of  the  proof-reader  to  notice  and  check  this  irregularity. 

The  last  line  of  a  paragraph  should  not  on  any  account 
begin  a  page,  neither  should  the  first  line  of  a  paragraph  come 
at  the  bottom  of  a  page  if  the  work  has  white  lines  between 
the  breaks :  to  prevent  this,  the  compositor  may  make  his  page 
either  long  or  short,  as  most  convenient,  always  taking  care 
that  the  odd  and  even  pages  back,  so  that  the  extra  length  or 
shortness  of  the  page  may  escape  observation. 

INDEXES. 

The  index  is  generally  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  and 
set  in  letter  two  sizes  less  than  that  of  the  work.  It  is  always 
begun  upon  an  uneven  page.  In  setting  an  index,  the  subject' 
line  should  not  be  indented;  but,  if  the  article  make  more 
than  one  line,  all  but  the  first  should  be  indented  an  em. 

In  preparing  the  copy  of  an  index,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  subject-words  are  arranged  alphabetically,  as  the 
compositor  will  not  transpose  his  matter  afterward  without 
remuneration. 

Where  several  index-figures  are  used  in  succession,  a  com- 
ma is  put  after  each  folio ;  but,  to  save  figures  and  commas, 
the  succession  of  the  former  is  noted  by  putting  a  dash  between 
the  first  and  last  figures:  thus,  4-8.  Again,  if  an  article  has 
been  collected  from  two  pages,  the  folio  of  the  second  is  sup- 
plied by  sq.,  or  sequente,  and  by  sqq.,  or  seqiiientibus,  when  an 
article  is  touched  upon  in  succeeding  pages.  A  full-point  is 
not  put  after  the  last  figures,  because  it  is  thought  that  their 
standing  at  the  end  of  the  line  is  a  sufficient  stop.  Neither  is 
a  comma  or  a  full-point  placed  to  the  last  word  of  an  article 
in  a  wide  measure  and  open  matter  with  leaders;  but  it  is 
proper  to  use  a  comma  at  the  end  of  every  article  where  the 
figures  are  put  close  to  the  matter,  instead  of  running  them  to 
the  end  of  the  line. 


134  COMPOSING. 


TITLES. 

Ornamental  tj-pe  may  be  used  to  good  purpose  in  fancy- 
jobs,  and  without  violating  any  of  tlie  canons  of  a  correct  taste. 
The  universal  eye  is  pleased  with  ornament;  and  it  is  well  to 
foster  this  fancy,  just  as  we  cultivate  a  poetical  feeling,  or  a 
passion  for  music,  or  flowers,  or  any  beautiful  thing  that  God 
has  made.  But,  as  life  should  not  be  all  music,  or  flowers,  or 
poetry,  so  printing  should  not  be  all  ornament.  And  as  men 
whom  nature  puts  in  the  fore-front  of  all  other  men  are  noted 
for  a  becoming  simplicity  of  life  and  style,  so  the  title-page 
that  heralds  all  the  inner  pages  of  a  book  should  be  printed  in 
a  style  of  elegance  severe  and  unadorned:  no  fancy  type, 
except  a  line  of  Scribe  Text,  or  Old  English, — no  italics,  unless 
perchance  a  single-line  motto  in  Pearl  caps, — no  bold-face 
type,  nor  Antique,  nor  Gothic, — but  plain,  clear,  light-faced 
letters  that  seem  the  embodiment  of  the  soul  of  thought.  All 
experienced  printers  incline  to  this  simple  style ;  but  pub- 
lishers sometimes  interfere  with  this  province  of  art  legitimate 
only  to  a  typographer,  and  insist  on  the  indulgence  of  a  taste 
which  certainly  owes  no  allegiance  to  any  of  the  laws  of 
beauty;  and  the  printer  or  stereotyper  who  executes  the  book 
receives  credit  for  a  title-page  which  he  would  fain  utterly 
repudiate. 

We  add  a  few  hints  which  may  assist  the  learner,  ist. 
Having  divided  the  title  into  lines,  and  decided  upon  the  size 
of  type  suitable  for  the  principal  one,  begin  by  composing 
those  of  the  second  and  third  class,  both  in  ascending  and  de- 
scending order.  2d.  Avoid  having  two  lines  of  equal  length 
to  follow  or  come  in  contact  with  each  other.  3d.  Catch-words 
should  be  set  on  quite  a  reduced  scale,  and  proportioned  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  of  the  preceding  and  succeeding  lines; 
for  bold  catch-words  detract  from  the  general  effect  of  the  title. 
4th.  Close  attention  should  be  given  to  those  title-pages 
which  are  acknowledged  to  be  displayed  with  true  taste  and 
judgment. 

Authors  should  endeavour  to  make  their  title-pages  as  con- 
cise as  possible;  for  a  crowded  title  can  never  be  displayed 
with  elegance  or  taste. 


COMPOSING.  135 


DEDICATIONS. 

The  dedication  generally  follows  the  title,  and  seldom  ex- 
ceeds one  page.  It  should  be  set  in  capitals  and  small  capitals, 
neatly  displayed.  The  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  work 
is  dedicated  should  always  be  in  capitals,  and  the  terms.  Your 
very  humble  and  very  obedient,  &c.,  should  be  in  a  smaller 
type,  and  the  signature  or  name  of  the  author  in  capitals  of  a 
smaller  size  than  that  in  which  the  name  of  the  personage  is 
printed  to  whom  the  book  is  dedicated. 

CONTENTS. 

The  contents  follow  the  preface  or  introduction,  and  may  be 
set  either  in  Roman  or  Italic,  generally  two  sizes  smaller  than 
the  body  of  the  work;  the  first  line  of  each  summary  full, 
and  the  rest  indented  an  em  quadrate,  with  the  referring  figures 
justified  at  the  ends  of  the  respective  lines. 

PREFACES. 

Formerly,  the  preface  was  uniformly  set  in  Italic ;  at  present 
Roman  is  used,  one  size  larger  or  smaller  than  the  body  of  the 
work.  The  running  title  to  the  preface  is  commonly  set  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  body  of  the  work.  If  the  work 
has  been  printed  without  a  running  title,  and  paged  in  the 
centre  of  the  line  only,  then  the  preface  should  be  treated  in 
like  manner. 

SIGNATURING. 

The  title,  preface,  &c.  of  a  volume  are  commonly  left  till  the 
body  of  the  work  is  finished,  as  circumstances  may  arise  in 
the  course  of  its  progress  through  the  press  which  will  induce 
the  author  to  alter  his  original  preface,  date,  &c.,  or  the  work 
may  conclude  in  such  a  m.anner  as  to  admit  of  their  being 
brought  in  at  the  end,  in  order  to  fill  out  a  sheet,  and  thus  save 
both  paper  and  press-work.  For  this  reason,  it  is  well  to  begin 
the  first  sheet  of  every  work  with  signature  B  (or  2),  leaving 
A  (or  i)  for  the  title-sheet. 

It  was  forrnerly  the  custom  to  omit  the  letters  J,  V,  and  W 
in  the  list  of  signatures.  But  the  greater  convenience  attend- 
ing the  use  of  twenty-five  letters  has  recently  induced  several 
of  our  largest  establishments  to  omit  the  letter  J  only. 

12* 


136  COMPOSING. 


ERRATA. 

The  errata  are  put  immediately  before  the  body  of  the 
work,  or  at  the  end  of  it.  They  should  consist  only  of  such  cor- 
rections as  are  indispetisahly  necessary,  without  noticing  any 
defects  in  the  punctuation,  unless  where  the  sense  is  perverted. 
It  is  strongly  to  be  wished  that  works  could  be  produced  per- 
fectly free  from  errors ;  but  this  is  almost  a  vain  hope  while 
imperfection  clings  to  humanity,  and  while  every  form  is  ex- 
posed to  accident  and  every  additional  proof  may  be  produc- 
tive of  fresh  error. 

HINTS  HONOURED  IN  THE  BREACH. 

WHEN  you  lay  a  fount  of  new  type,  don't  open  the  papers 
carefully,  and  place  the  lines  evenly  with  a  brass  rule 
in  the  cases,  nick  up;  but  show  your  skill  by  tumbling  over 
each  package  rapidly,  and  bringing  it  down  with  a  rush  on  the 
imposing-stone;  then,  roughly  throwing  the  a"s  into  a  chaotic 
pile,  grab  them  up  by  handfuls  and  work  them  well  down  in 
the  appropriate  box.  The  harder  you  jostle  them  down,  the 
more  you  will  get  in.  Proceed  thus  with  each  letter;  and,  if 
the  operation  has  been  vigorously  performed,  the  value  of  the 
fount  will  have  been  reduced,  say  ten  per  cent. 

2.  While  you  set  out  one  case,  let  your  galley  lie  on  the 
overheaped  type  of  another  case. 

3.  If  a  line  is  rather  too  tight  to  permit  the  last  letter  to  get 
in  easily,  push  it  down  hard  with  your  rule  or  a  quadrate. 
The  type  may  be  injured;  but  why  didn't  it  tit  in  just  right  at 
first? 

4.  Empty  your  matter  at  a  gentle  inclination  on  the  galley, 
and  make  it  up  at  the  same  angle.  You  can  bring  it  right 
afterward — perhaps — by  the  energetic  aj^plication  of  mallet, 
shooting-stick,  and  planer. 

5.  When  the  case  is  half  set  out,  shake  up  the  type  ener- 
getically, and  do  so  very  often.  The  exercise  will  strengthen 
your  muscles. 

6.  Don't  brush  off  the  stone  before  you  lay  the  matter  down. 
If  any  sand  happens  to  get  under,  the  type  will  show  its  im- 
pression beautifully  deep  and  clear  on  the  face  of  the  planer, 
— perhaps  a  whole  word  or  two. 


TO  THE  APPRENTICE.  137 

7.  Don't  plane  till  the  form  is  locked  up,  as  thus  you  save 
the  trouble  of  the  first  planing.  But,  now  that  you  do  plane, 
hammer  away,  and  show  your  musical  ability  in  playing  a 
tattoo  on  the  form.  Don't  lay  the  planer  tenderly  and  lovingly 
on  the  types,  as  if  you  were  afraid  to  hurt  their  feelings,  and 
gently  tap  it ;  but  hold  it  off  about  a  quarter  or  three-eighths 
of  an  inch,  and  then  bring  down  the  mallet  wdth  a  will.  Phew ! 
how  the  planer  will  descend  obedient  to  the  stroke,  and  re- 
bound again,  and  perhaps  again.  If  the  form  is  not  smooth 
on  the  surface  now,  it  is  not  your  fault.  Repeat  this  each  time 
when  the  form  is  locked  up,  till  it  goes  to  press;  and  you 
may  depend  on  it  the  impression  will  gain  in  boldness,  if  not 
in  looks. 

8.  When  correcting  your  numerous  errors,  don't  trouble 
yourself  to  lift  the  lines  carefully  at  the  ends,  but  dig  right  into 
the  head  of  the  erring  letter,  and,  resting  your  bodkin  on  the 
type  below  it,  pry  up  the  sinner:  it  does  not  matter  if  you  de- 
molish two  or  three  types  in  the  under  line. 

9.  Wash  your  form  energetically,  and  apply  the  ley  bounti- 
fully with  a  good  stiff  wiry  brush.  Never  mind  rinsing :  clean 
type  is  an  old-fogy  notion. 

10.  When  the  type  is  out  of  use,  let  it  lie  around  promis- 
cuously,—on  a  table,  or  board,  or  any  place  where  it  will  be 
occasionally  convenient  to  lay  on  it  a  mallet  or  tin  basin.  If 
one  strip  of  matter  is  placed  on  another,  room  will  be  econo- 
mized.    Moreover,  the  under  layers  will  be  safe  from  dust. 

II  (comprehensively).  Do  every  thing  in  a  loose  way  gene- 
rally, letting  matters  go  as  they  list,  throwing  your  pi  into  spare 
boxes  or  secretly  placing  it  on  the  letter-table  or  some  out-of- 
the-way  place,  stealing  sorts  from  your  neighbour,  overcharg- 
ing time-work  and  extras,  fishing  for  fat  takes,  &c. 

12.  If  you  observe  these  things  faithfully  and  constantly, 
and  your  employer  does  not  kick  you  out  of  his  office,  why — 
you  do  not  get  your  deserts. 

TO  THE  APPRENTICE. 

ASPIRING  apprentice,  a  word  or  two  in  your  ear.  If  you 
-  desire  success  in  any  matter  pertaining  to  this  life  or  the 
coming,  you  must  have  a  purpose, — a  determination  that,  God 
helping  you,  you  will  achieve  success.     You  may  be  poor, 


138  TO  THE  APPRENTICE. 

friendless,  unknown, — your  clothing  scant,  your  stomach  half 
filled, — your  place  may  be  at  the  foot  of  the  ladder :  no  matter. 
Whatever  your  position  may  be,  do  your  duty  in  it,  stoutly 
and  perseveringly,  with  your  eye  fixed  far  ahead  and  upward. 

Keeping  the  purpose  before  you  that  you  will  rise,  be  obe- 
dient to  your  employer,  attentive  to  your  business,  obliging 
to  your  shopmates,  and  courteous  to  strangers ;  and  seize  every 
opportunity  to  improve  your  heart,  your  mind,  and  your  work- 
manship. Do  every  thing  well, — no  slighting,  no  hiding  de- 
fects, aiming  always  at  perfection.  Watch  those  who  are 
skilful,  and  strive  to  equal  and  excel  them.  Secure  the  friend- 
ship of  all  by  deserving  it.  Allow  no  opportunity  of  rendering 
a  service  to  pass  without  improving  it,  even  if  it  cost  you  some 
labour  and  self-denial.  Be  of  use  to  others,  even  if  in  a  small 
way ;  for  a  time  may  come  when  they  may  be  of  service  to  you. 
A  selfish  man  may  get  ahead  faster  than  you ;  but  selfishness 
is  contemptible, — and  you  need  not  envy  his  success :  when 
you  achieve  your  object  nobly,  you  will  enjoy  it,  and  be  re- 
spected. 

Always  bear  in  mind  that  character  is  capital.  To  gain 
this,  you  must  be  so  scrupulously  honest  that  you  would  be  as 
willing  to  put  live  coals  in  your  pocket  as  a  penny  that  is  not 
yours.  Never  run  in  debt:  do  without  what  you  cannot  at 
once  pay  for,  even  thougli  you  should  suffer  somewhat.  No 
matter  what  the  amount  of  your  earnings  may  be,  save  a  portion 
every  week,  and  invest  it  in  a  savings-bank  of  good  standing: 
it  will  grow,  and  will  stand  you  in  good  stead  some  day.  Bet- 
ter temporary  abstinence  and  constant  plenty  afterward,  than 
unearned  present  comfort  and  future  perpetual  want.  Never 
lie,  openly  or  covertly,  by  word  or  action.  A  liar  may  deceive 
his  fellows, — God  and  himself  never.  Conscious  of  falsity,  a 
liar  can  have  no  self-respect ;  without  self-respect,  reputation 
cannot  be  achieved. 

With  a  noble  purpose  as  the  end  of  all  your  actions,  and 
with  actions  becoming  your  purpose,  your  success  is  merely  a 
question  of  time, — always  provided  you  have  some  brain  and 
abundant  common  sense. 


TO  BEGINXERS.  139 


TO  BEGINNERS. 

SANGUINE  beginners  sometimes  fail  in  their  attempts  to 
establish  themselves  in  business ;  and  in  many  cases  are 
disposed  to  lay  the  blame  on  every  thing  and  on  everybody 
except  themselves.  So  we  here  give  some  rules — (in  an  ironi- 
cal way,  to  make  them  stick  in  the  memory) — 

HOW  NOT  TO  SUCCEED. 

1.  Get  from  your  father,  uncle,  aunt,  grandmother,  or  some- 
body, four  or  five  thousand  dollars.  You  need  not  give  notes 
or  any  written  obligations,  as  they  may  prove  troublesome 
some  day. 

2.  Rent  a  comfortable  room  somewhere,  no  matter  whether 
in  a  business  centre  or  not,  but  let  it  be  showy  and  pleasant. 

3.  Spend  one-fourth  of  your  capital  in  furnishing  the  room 
with  matters  of  personal  comfort.  Provide  an  elegant  desk,  a 
luxurious  lounge,  and  a  pivot-chair:  why  shouldn't  the  mas- 
ter of  a  printing  office  "take  it  easy"?  Have  a  closet  in  your 
desk,  it  is  so  handy  for  your  whisky-bottle  and  cigar-boxes. 

4.  Get  all  you  can  from  the  type-founder,  press-maker,  and 
paper-manufacturers.  If  they  will  give  you  credit  for  one-half 
of  what  you  buy,  well  and  good :  if  they  trust  you  for  the 
whole  amount,  all  the  better  for  you,  and  the  more  money  you 
will  have  on  hand  for  jollifications. 

5.  Put  up  your  sign — a  handsome  one — 

and  signalize  its  erection  by  keeping  "open  house"  for  all 
comers  between  11  a.m.  and  midnight.  The  mothers  and 
wives  of  all  who  become  tight  and  go  home  loose  will  long 
remember  your  public  spirit. 

6.  Be  at  your  office  by  nine  in  summer  and  ten  in  winter; 
and,  following  Charles  Lamb's  witticism,  that  he  who  goes  to 
work  late  should  quit  early,  you  need  not  return  after  dinner. 
Let  your  foreman  attend  to  the  business:  isn't  he  paid  for  it? 

7.  When  you  do  go  into  your  office,  curse  and  grumble 


I40  TO  BEGINNERS. 


promiscuously,  and  be  sure  to  swear  at  the  apprentices,  to 
show  your  spirit,  and  to  let  them  know  that  you  are  master. 
Be  careful  never  to  praise  them  or  any  of  the  hands,  or  they 
may  think  they  are  worth  higher  wages. 

8.  Take  work  at  any  price  that  will  keep  it  from  a  compe- 
titor, no  matter  whether  it  pays  or  not.  Perhaps  you  can  save 
something  by  giving  short  numbers,  counting  in  imperfect 
copies,  using  very  common  ink,  &c.  The  style  is  of  no  con- 
sequence :  you  want  to  make  money  if  you  can,  let  others 
improve  the  typographical  art  if  they  choose. 

9.  Cultivate  the  acquaintance  of  fancy  folk,  politicians,  and 
wit-livers.  A  fast  horse  or  two  wouldn't  be  a  bad  thing  to 
bind  their  friendship ;  and,  besides,  you  will  never  be  at  a  loss 
for  a  companion  in  your  rides. 

10.  If  you  want  new  type,  and  the  founder  who  made  your 
outfit  won't  sell  to  you  unless  you  pay  off  the  old  score,  trans- 
fer your  patronage  to  another  foundry.  How  can  you  expect 
to  get  along  if  you  pay  your  debts?  Such  a  course  would 
compel  you  to  sell  your  horse  and  to  taboo  rum-shops  and 
gay  saloons,  and  to  live  economically ;  and  this,  you  know, 
wouldn't  do  at  all. 

11.  Get  out  a  newspaper,  and  advocate  the  principles  of 
the  strongest  party,  swearing  thick  and  thin  through  every 
thing.  You  need  not  bother  yourself  about  writing  original 
matter;  crib  wherever  you  can.  There  are  plenty  of  fellows 
who  want  office, — lawyers  particularly, — and  they  will  write 
slang  enough  to  fill  your  columns.  You  might  quietly  levy 
a  little  black-mail  or  hush-money  from  neighbours  guilty  of 
indiscretions:  dirty  money  will  buy  as  much  as  clean. 

J 2.  You  needn't  marry,  unless  some  fond  rich  girl  should 
happen  to  fancy  a  fool.  You  know,  you  need  not  trouble  your- 
self much  about  her  after  you  have  secured  her  money:  let 
her  father  look  after  her  welfare.  If  she  dies  broken-hearted, 
why — she  ought  not  to  have  been  so  sensitive. 

13.  You  may  be  troubled  occasionally  by  a  qualm  of  con- 
science ;  but  this  can  be  settled  by  a  dram  or  two.  After  a  few 
doses,  conscience  will  go  to  sleep,  and  trouble  you  no  more, 
unless  you  should  happen  to  see  a  Bible  or  hear  a  sermon, 
which  as  a  matter  of  course  you  will  try  to  avoid.  It  is  true, 
wreck  and  ruin  will  be  sure  to  overtake  you,  and  the  devil  will 
catch  you  at  last;  l)ut  why  worry  yourself  before  the  time? 


IMPOSING,  OR  PREPARING  FOR  PRESS. 


ivm  ai  1B4)  -poojo  Jtiouiju 

•,4Jf><ns..,joi»M0de.,ia! 
pus  "pio-j  041  uj  8iiojiB»n 

•uii4ii)!MNU0&ja(lj0)3#clG»J 
e«m  ei  j»m!»u  :ua4«8H  ui 

ff4ioi,S-.ai«tti8i'"poVfi 

■aajj  io  pooq  *9  »v 
iBt(i8iiM  -pjoT  841  jos^.ao 

•'0  moij  poo  JO  ii!M  6^^ 
8u.op     ■»Bti40    JO  81"B»l^H 

•a3,4«i-8l«  Mi.M  »0K  9 

n.'3u,,qai»JipuBJM,  m.*» 

lueipeqo  aq    ■siuB^jeg  g 
'/<!  SKYIS3Bd3      9 

8      EPHESIANS  VI. 

12  For  we    wrestle    not 
against    flesh     and    hlo.id. 

agaiDsl  i^owers, aga^DBl  the 
rulers  of  the    darkoBss    of 
lliis  world.  againrtHpiritual 
wickedneHMin  h,gh  plaea. 

13  Wherefore  take  unto 
vou  lh«    nhole   armoor  of 
»od.  that  ye  ma^  be  able 
lo«ith8tandint»,eevilday. 
and    having    done   all,    to 
stand. 

U  Stan.1  therefore.  ha»- 

CHAPTER  VI. 
pHILDREN.  oUy  yoor 
\J     parents  in  ti.e    Lord: 

2  Honour  thy  father  and 
mother;    whi.:h  ie  the  6rst 

3  That   It   may  be    well 

4  And.    ye  fathers,    pro- 
voke not  yt,ur  children  to 
wrath:    but  br'ng  them  up 

nitionof  the  Lord. 

1                5 

c 


IMPOSITION 

'OMPREHENDS 
a  knowledge  of 
placing  the  pages  so 
that  they  may  regularly 
follow  each  other  when 
printed  and  the  sheet 
is  folded  up;  and  also 
the  mode  of  dressing 
chases  and  the  manner 
of  making  the  proper 
margin.  As  many  pages 
as  are  required  for  a 
whole  or  half  sheet 
being  made  up,  the 
compositor  lays  them 
upon  the  imposing- 
stone,  placing  the  first 
page  with  the  signa- 
ture to  the  left  hand 
facing  him,  and  then  proceeds  according  to  one  of  the  schemes 
on  pp.  150-199.  These  will  be  found  to  contain  every  necessary 
imposition, — viz.  folios,  quartos,  octavos,  twelves,  sixteens, 
eighteens,  twenties,  twenty-fours,  thirty-twos,  thirty-sixes,  for- 
ties, forty-eights,  sixty-fours,  seventy-twos,  ninety-sixes,  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty-eights.  We  also  introduce  schemes 
for  imposing  Irom  the  centre,  by  which  means  the  blank  or 

141 


142  TYING  UP  PAGES. 

open  pages  may  be  thrown  in  the  centre  of  the  form,  leaving 
the  solid  pages  on  the  outside  to  act  as  bearers  for  the  rollers, 
as  well  as  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  impression. 

All  odd  matter,  for  any  form,  should  be  divided  into  fours, 
eights,  twelves,  and  sixteens,  which  is  the  groundwork  of  all 
the  impositions  except  the  eighteens,  which  differ  from  all  the 
others;  for  instance,  sixteens,  twenty-fours,  and  thirty-twos 
are  only  octavos  and  twelves  doubled,  or  twice  doubled,  and 
imposed  in  half  sheets:  for  example,  the  sixteens  are  two 
octavos  imposed  on  one  side  of  the  short  cross ;  the  twenty- 
fours  are  two  twelves  imposed  on  each  side  of  the  long  cross ; 
and  a  thirty-two  is  four  octavos  imposed  in  each  quarter  of 
the  chase.  Thus,  a  sheet  may  be  repeatedly  doubled.  By  this 
division,  any  form  or  sheet  may  be  imposed,  always  bearing 
in  mind  that  the  first  page  of  each  class  must  stand  to  the  left 
hand,  with  the  foot  of  the  page  toward  you.  Having  set  down 
the  first  page,  then  trace  the  remainder  according  to  the  scheme 
which  applies  to  its  number;  in  proof  of  which,  the  standard 
rule  for  all  other  impositions  may  be  adopted, — namely,  the 
folios  of  two  pages,  if  placed  properly  beside  each  other,  ivilt 
when  added  together  make  one  more  than  the  nmnber  of  pages 
in  the  sheet ;  that  is,  in  a  sheet  of  sixteens,  pages  i  and  i6 
coming  together  will  add  up  17,  and  so  9  and  8  will  make  17,  &c. 

In  half  sheets,  all  the  pages  belonging  to  the  white  paper, 
and  reiteration,  are  imposed  in  one  chase.  So  that  when  a 
sheet  of  paper  is  printed  on  both  sides  with  the  same  form, 
that  sheet  is  cut  in  two  in  the  short  cross  if  quarto  or  octavo, 
and  in  the  short  and  long  cross  of  twelves,  and  folded  as  octavo 
or  twelves. 

TYING  UP  PAGES. 

IN  tying  up  a  page,  use  fine  twine,  winding  it  four  or  five 
times  round  it,  and  fastening  at  the  right-hand  corner,  by 
thrusting  a  noose  of  it  between  the  several  turnings  and  the 
matter  with  the  rule,  and  drawing  it  perfectly  tight,  taking 
care  always  to  keep  the  end  of  the  cord  on  the  face  of  the  page. 
While  tying  it,  keep  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  tight  on 
the  corner,  to  prevent  the  page  from  being  drawn  aside. 

The  twine  being  fastened,  the  compositor  removes  the  page 
from  the  ledges  of  the  galley,  to  see  if  the  turns  of  cord  lie 


LA  YIXG  PA  GES.  1 43 


about  the  middle  of  the  shank  of  the  letter ;  if  they  lie  too  high, 
— as  most  commonly  they  do, — he  thrusts  them  lower;  and 
if  the  page  be  not  too  broad,  he  places  the  fore  and  middle 
finger  of  his  right  hand  on  the  offside  of  the  head  of  the  page, 
and  his  thumb  on  the  near;  then,  bending  his  other  fingers 
under,  he  presses  them  firmly  against  the  head  of  the  page ;  he 
next  places  the  fingers  of  his  left  hand  in  the  same  position  at 
the  foot  of  the  page,  and,  raising  it  upright,  lays  it  on  a  page- 
paper;  then,  with  his  right  hand  he  grasps  the  sides  of  the 
page  and  the  paper,  which  turns  up  against  the  sides  of  the 
page,  and  sets  it  in  a  convenient  spot  under  his  frame,  placing 
it  on  the  left  hand,  with  the  foot  toward  him,  that  the  other 
pages  that  are  in  like  manner  set  down  afterward  may  stand 
by  it  in  an  orderly  succession  until  he  comes  to  impose  them. 
If  the  page  be  a  quarto,  folio,  or  broadside,  it  is,  of  course, 
too  wide  for  his  grasp ;  and  he  therefore  carries  the  galley  and 
page  to  the  imposing-stone,  and  turns  the  handle  of  the  galley 
toward  him,  and,  taking  hold  of  the  handle  with  his  right 
hand,  he  places  the  ball  of  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  against 
the  inside  of  the  head  ledge  of  the  galley,  to  hold  it  and  keep 
it  steady,  and  by  the  handle  draws  the  slice  with  the  page 
upon  it  out  of  the  galley,  letting  the  slice  rest  upon  the  im- 
posing-stone ;  he  then  thrusts  the  head  end  of  the  slice  so  far 
upon  it,  that  the  foot  of  the  page  may  stand  an  inch  or  two 
within  the  outer  edge  of  the  stone,  and,  placing  his  left  hand 
against  the  foot  of  the  page,  he  quickly  draws  the  slice  from 
under  the  bottom  of  the  page. 


LAYING  PAGES. 

IN  taking  up  his  pages  for  imposition,  the  compositor  tightly 
grasps  the  paper  on  both  sides  of  the  page,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  kept  firm  to  the  bottom  of  the  page ;  for  if  it  be 
left  slack,  the  letters  will  be  liable  to  slip  out,  unless  it  be  par- 
ticularly well  tied  up.  Having  conveyed  it  to  the  stone,  he 
next  places  the  last  two  fingers  of  his  right  hand  under  the 
head  of  the  page,  but  not  under  the  page-paper  at  the  head  of 
it,  still  grasping  the  sides  with  his  forefingers  and  thumb ;  he 
then  slips  his  left  hand  so  that  the  palm  of  it  may  turn  toward 
the  bottom,  and,  lifting  the  page  upright  on  his  right  hand, 

13 


144  MAKING  UP  FURNITURE. 

with  the  left  he  removes  the  paper ;  he  next  grasps  again  the 
foot-end  of  the  page  with  his  left  hand,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  right  holds  the  head  of  it,  and,  turning  the  face  of  the  type 
toward  him,  lays  it  squarely  and  quickly  dov\-n,  so  that  the 
whole  page  may  come  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  stone  at 
the  same  time. 

As  this  method,  in  inexperienced  or  careless  hands,  would 
frequently  endanger  a  page  containing  intricate  matter,  it  will 
be  safer  to  place  the  pages  at  first  on  good,  strong,  but  not 
coarse  and  rough  papers,  and,  when  they  are  brought  to  the 
stone,  instead  of  lifting  them  up  as  just  noticed,  slide  them  off 
the  papers  in  the  same  manner  as  before  directed  respecting  a 
folio  page  on  the  slice  galley,  being  careful  that  no  particles 
of  dirt  remain  under  the  page. 


MAKING  UP  FURNITURE. 

HAVING  ascertained  that  his  pages  are  laid  down  right,  the 
compositor  proceeds  to  dress  the  chases,  which  we  will 
suppose  to  be  for  a  sheet  of  octavo.  Accordingly  he  selects  a 
good  pair  of  chases  that  are  fellows  in  all  respects;  and, 
having  laid  them  over  the  pages  for  the  two  different  forms, 
he  puts  such  gutter-sticks  between  page  and  page,  and  such 
reglets  along  the  sides  ol  the  two  crosses,  as  will  give  the  book 
proper  margins  after  it  is  bound. 

To  ascertain  the  proper  distance,  and  to  prevent  wastage 
of  furniture,  he  takes  short  pieces  of  furniture,  or  quotations, 
and  quadrates  or  reglets,  to  fit  the  space  between  two  pages ; 
then,  pushing  the  pages  close  to  them,  he  finds  the  exact  width 
of  the  furniture  necessary,  by  trying  the  ends  of  various  pieces, 
always  measuring  from  the  edge  of  the  lines  of  type  above  the 
page-cords. 

By  observing  a  proper  method  in  cutting  up  new  furniture, 
the  same  will  be  serviceable  for  other  works  as  well  as  the  one 
for  which  it  is  intended,  even  though  the  size  of  the  page  may 
differ,  provided  it  agrees  with  the  margin  of  the  paper.  The 
gutters  should  be  cut  two  or  three  lines  longer  than  the  page; 
the  head-sticks  wider;  the  back  furniture  may  run  nearly 
down  to  the  rim  of  the  chase,  but  must  be  level  with  the  top 
of  the  page,  wliich  will  admit  of  the  inner  head-stick  running 


MAKING  THE  MARGIN.  145 

in;  the  difference  of  the  outer  head-sticic  may  go  over  the 
side-sticlc,  and  the  gutter  will  then  run  up  between  them. 
The  side-stick  only  need  to  be  cut  exact,  and  the  furniture  will 
completely  justify. 

Wood  and  metal  furniture,  cut  or  cast  to  specific  lengths 
and  widths,  may  now  be  had  from  the  type-founders,  the  use 
of  which  will  save  time,  waste,  and  labour. 


MAKING  THE  MARGIN. 

THE  next  business  is  to  arrange  the  margin,  so  that  each 
page  may  occupy  one  side  of  a  leaf,  and  have  the  proper 
proportion  of  white  paper  left  at  the  sides  as  well  as  at  the 
head  and  foot.  The  page  when  printed  should  be  a  little  higher 
than  the  middle  of  the  leaf  and  have  a  little  more  margin  on 
the  outside  than  in  the  back.  This  rule  is  often  neglected  by 
careless  or  ignorant  printers,  and  the  appearance  of  the  book 
when  bound  is  repulsive  to  the  eye  of  taste. 

One  mode  of  making  margin  is  the  following : — For  octavos, 
measure  and  mark  the  width  of  four  pages  by  compasses,  on 
a  sheet  of  paper  designed  for  the  work,  beginning  to  measure 
at  one  extremity  of  the  breadth  of  the  sheet.  The  rest  of  the 
paper  divide  into  four  equal  parts,  allowing  two-fourths  for 
the  width  of  two  separate  gutter-sticks ;  the  remaining  two- 
fourths  divide  again  into  four  equal  parts,  and  allow  one-fourth 
for  the  margin  along  each  side  of  the  short  cross,  and  one- 
fourth  for  the  margin  to  each  outside  page.  But  as  the  thick- 
ness of  the  short  cross  adds  considerably  to  the  margin,  reduce 
the  furniture  in  the  back  accordingly,  and  thereby  enlarge  the 
outside  margin,  which  requires  the  greatest  share  to  allow  for 
the  unevenness  of  the  paper  itself,  as  well  as  for  pressmen 
laying  sheets  unevenly  when  the  fault  is  not  in  the  paper. 
Having  thus  made  the  m.argin  between  the  pages  to  the 
breadth  of  the  paper,  in  the  same  manner  proportion  the  mar- 
gin at  the  head  to  the  length,  and  accordingly  measure  and 
mark  the  length  of  two  pages,  dividing  the  rest  into  four  parts, 
one-fourth  of  which  is  allowed  for  each  side  of  the  long  cross, 
and  one-fourth  for  the  margin  that  runs  along  the  foot  of  the 
two  ranges  of  pages.  The  furniture  on  both  sides  of  the  long 
one  must  be  lessened  to  enlarge  the  bottom  margin,  for  the 
reason  assigned  for  extending  the  side  margin. 


146  MAKING  THE  MARGIN. 

Go  the  same  way  to  work  in  twelves,  where,  for  the  outer 
margin  along  the  foot  of  the  pages,  allow  the  amount  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  breadth  of  the  head-sticks,  and  the  same  for  the 
inner  margin,  that  reaches  from  the  foot  of  the  fifth  page  to 
the  centre  of  the  groove  for  the  points ;  and  from  the  centre  of 
that  groove  to  the  pages  of  the  quire,  or  the  cut  off,  allow 
half  of  the  breadth  of  the  head-stick.  The  margin  along  the 
long  cross  is  governed  by  the  gutter-sticks;  and  it  is  common 
to  put  as  much  on  each  side  of  the  long  cross  as  amounts  to 
half  the  breadth  of  the  gutter-stick,  without  deducting  almost 
any  thing  for  the  long  cross,  since  that  makes  allowance  for 
the  inequality  of  the  outer  margin. 

Another  plan,  more  simple,  is  the  following: — Having  laid 
the  pages  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  proper  places  on  the 
stone,  with  a  suitable  chase  around  them,  fold  a  sheet  of  paper 
which  has  been  wetted  for  the  work,  or  one  of  the  same  size, 
into  as  many  portions  as  there  are  pages  in  the  form,  and, 
holding  the  sheet  thus  folded  on  the  first  or  left-hand  page  of 
the  form,  one  edge  even  with  the  left-hand  side  of  the  type, 
place  the  adjoining  page  so  that  its  left  side  may  be  even  with 
the  right-hand  edge  of  the  folded  paper,  which  will  leave  a 
sufficient  space  between  the  two  pages  to  admit  the  gutter- 
stick,  which  should  then  be  selected  of  a  proper  width  to  suit 
the  form  in  hand,  as  follows : — In  octavos,  about  a  Great 
Primer  less  in  width  than  the  space  between  the  pages,  as 
determined  by  the  above  rule ;  in  duodecimos,  about  a  Pica 
less;  in  sixteens,  about  a  Long  Primer;  and  proportionably 
less  as  the  number  of  pages  are  increased.  Having  thus 
secured  the  proper  width  for  the  gutter-sticks,  cut  them 
somewhat  longer  than  the  page,  and  holding  one  of  them  be- 
tween the  two  pages,  above  the  page-cord,  close  the  pages  up 
to  it;  then  open  the  folded  sheet  so  as  to  cover  the  two  pages, 
and,  bringing  the  fold  in  the  paper  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the 
gutter-stick,  secure  it  there  with  the  point  of  a  pen-knife  or 
bodkin ;  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  paper  thus  opened  must 
be  brought  to  the  centre  of  the  cross-bar,  which  determines 
the  furniture  required  between  it  and  the  pages.  Having  thus 
arranged  the  margins  for  the  back  and  fore  edg^  of  the  book, 
proceed  in  like  manner  to  regulate  the  head  and  foot  margins, 
by  bringing  the  near  edge  of  the  folded  paper  even  with  the 
bottom  of  the  first  page,  and  so  placing  the  adjoining  off  page 


LOCKING  UP  FORMS.  I47 


that  its  head  may  be  barely  covered  by  the  off  edge  of  the 
folded  paper,  which  will  give  the  required  head  margin.  All 
other  sections  of  the  form  must  be  regulated  by  the  foregoing 
measurements,  when  the  margins  for  the  whole  sheet  will  be 
found  correct. 

The  greater  the  number  of  pages  in  a  sheet,  the  smaller  in 
proportion  should  the  margin  be :  the  folded  paper,  therefore, 
should  lie  proportionally  less  over  the  edge  of  the  adjoining 
page,  both  for  gutter  and  back,  in  a  form  of  small  pages  than 
in  one  of  larger  dimensions.  A  folio  may  require  the  page  to 
be  half  an  inch  nearer  the  back  than  the  fore-edge ;  while  a 
duodecimo  may  not  require  more  than  a  Pica  em. 

In  imposing  jobs  where  two  or  more  of  the  same  size,  re- 
quiring equal  margins,  are  to  be  worked  together,  fold  the 
paper  to  the  size  appropriate  for  each,  and  so  arrange  the 
type  that  the  distance  from  the  left  side  of  one  page  to  the  left 
side  of  the  adjoining  one  shall  be  exactly  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  folded  paper,  as  before  described. 

Having  dressed  the  inside  of  the  pages,  ne.xt  place  side-  and 
foot-sticks  to  their  outsides ;  being  thus  secured  by  the  furni- 
ture, untie  the  pages,  quarter  after  quarter,  the  inner  page 
first,  and  then  the  outer,  at  the  same  time  forcing  the  letter 
toward  the  crosses,  and  using  every  precaution  to  prevent  the 
pages  from  hanging  or  leaning ;  and,  in  order  to  guard  against 
accidents,  when  the  quarter  is  untied,  secure  it  with  a  couple 
of  quoins. 

LOCKING  UP  FORMS. 

FIRST,  carefully  examine  whether  the  pages  of  each  quar- 
ter are  of  the  same  length ;  for  even  the  difference  of  a 
lead  will  cause  them  to  hang.  Test  their  exactness:  place  the 
ball  of  each  thumb  against  the  centre  of  the  foot-stick,  raising 
it  a  little  with  the  pressure,  and,  if  the  ends  of  both  pages  rise 
equally  with  the  stick,  it  is  a  proof  they  will  not  bind ;  then  fit 
quoins  between  the  side  and  foot-stick  of  each  quarter  and  the 
chase.  After  pushing  the  quoins  as  far  as  possible  with  the 
fingers,  make  use  of  the  mallet  and  shooting-stick,  and  gently 
drive  the  quoins  along  the  foot-sticks  first,  and  then  those 
along  the  side-sticks,  taking  care  to  use  an  equal  force  in  the 
strokes,  and  to  drive  the  quoins  far  enough  up  the  shoulders 

13* 


MEMORANDA. 


of  the  side-  and  foot-sticks,  that  the  letter  may  neither  belly 
out  nor  hang,  and  the  lines  be  kept  straight  and  even.  Quoins 
should  be  slanted  on  one  side  only,  but  the  edges  should  not 
be  bevelled.  The  several  quarters  of  a  form  should  be  par- 
tially tightened  before  either  quarter  is  finally  locked  up; 
otherwise  the  cross-bar  may  be  sprung. 

Before  locking  up  the  form,  plane  the  pages  gently  over  all 
the  face.  If  this  be  properly  done,  a  second  planing  is  hardly 
necessary,  provided  the  justification  is  perfect  and  the  pages 
are  all  of  the  same  length.  But,  as  this  is  seldom  the  case,  the 
second  planing  can  hardly  be  dispensed  with. 

It  often  occurs  that  the  quoins,  when  locked  up  wet,  stick 
so  tight  to  the  furniture  as  to  render  it  troublesome  to  unlock 
them :  in  such  cases,  drive  the  quoin  up  a  little,  and  it  after- 
ward unlocks  with  ease. 

Before  lifting  a  form  after  it  is  locked  up,  raise  it  gently  a 
short  distance,  and  look  under  it,  to  ascertain  whether  any 
types  are  disposed  to  drop  out.  If  all  is  right,  carry  it  to  the 
proof-press,  and  pull  a  good  proof.  Then  rub  it  over  gently 
with  a  ley-brush,  rinse  it  well,  and  place  it  in  a  rack,  and 
deliver  the  proof,  with  the  copy,  to  the  proof-reader. 

MEMORANDA. 

EACH  part  of  the  furniture  should  be  in  one  piece  where 
it  is  practicable, — as,  for  instance,  the  gutters,  the  backs, 
and  the  heads ;  but  sometimes  pieces  will  be  wanted  of  a 
widtli  tliat  is  not  equal  to  any  regular  size,  and  then  two  must 
be  used. 

All  the  gutters  of  one  sheet  should  be  cut  of  a  precise 
length;  so  also  with  the  backs  and  the  heads;  but  each  sort 
should  be  of  a  different  length  from  that  of  the  others :  thus  they 
can  be  easily  distinguished  from  each  other,  and  mistakes  be 
prevented. 

The  sheet  being  imposed,  the  stone  should  be  cleared ;  the 
saw  and  saw-block  put  in  their  places,  the  shears,  the  mallet, 
planer,  and  shooting-stick,  the  surplus  furniture,  the  leads, 
the  cjuoins,  and  every  other  article.  The  compositor  will  tie 
up  his  page-cords,  and,  if  he  has  any  companions,  will  return 
to  them  their  proportion. 

The  chase  and  furniture  of  one  form  should  always  be  used 


NOMENCLATURE  OF  SHEETS. 


149 


for  a  similar  form ;  that  is,  the  chase  and  furniture  of  the  outer 
form  should  be  again  used  for  an  outer  form,  and  the  chase 
and  furniture  of  the  inner  form  should  be  again  used  for  an 
inner  form;  they  should  also  be  put  round  the  pages  in  the 
same  order  in  which  they  were  put  about  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding forms.  For  want  of  care  or  thought  in  these  apparently 
trifling  circumstances,  trouble,  inconvenience,  and  loss  of  time 
frequently  occur;  for  the  register  will  be  almost  sure  to  be 
wrong  when  this  is  neglected,  and  then  the  forms  must  be 
unlocked  and  the  leads  changed,  to  correct  the  fault. 

Before  the  form  is  printed,  a  proof  should  be  taken  and  the 
sheet  folded,  to  make  sure  of  the  correctness  of  the  imposition. 

The  preceding  rules  and  directions  were  intended  for  type- 
forms,  and  were  formerly  of  universal  necessity.  Now  most 
books  are  printed  from  stereotyped  or  electrotyped  plates. 
The  same  instructions,  however,  are  generally  as  applicable  to 
plate  as  to  type  pages. 

NOMENCLATURE  OF  SHEETS. 

WHEN  a  sheet  of  paper  of  Medium  or  larger  size  is  folded 
in  two  leaves,  like  most  newspapers,  it  is  called  a  folio ; 
when  folded  in  four  leaves,  it  is  named  a  quarto  or  4to ;  when 
folded  in  eight  leaves,  an  octavo  or  8vo ;  in  twelve  leaves,  a 
duodecimo  or  i2mo  ;  in  si.xteen  leaves,  sextodecimo  or  i6mo  ; 
in  eighteen  leaves,  octodecimo  or  i8mo  ;  in  twenty-four  leaves, 
I'igesimo-quarto,  or  24mo,  and  so  on.  The  Latin  names 
beyond  duodecimo  are  seldom  used. 


IMPOSiriON. 


Abstract  Title-Deeds  of  Estates. 


1 

Abstract  Title- 
Deeds  of  Estates  are 
printed  with  blanks 
at  the  back,  with  all 
the  margin  on  the  left 
side,  and  on  single 
leaves,  which  are 
stitched  together  at 
the  corner. 

This  method  of  im- 
posing the  form  is 
to  save  presswork 
and  the  compositor's 
charsre. 


A  Single  Sheet  of  Folio. 


U 


IMPOSITION. 


151 


Two  Sheets  of  Folio,  Quired,  or  lying  one  ia  another. 

Outer  Form  of  the  Outer  Sheet. 


Outer  Form  of  the  Inner  Sheet. 


A2 


Imposing  in  quires  may  be  carried  to  any  extent,  by  observing  the 
following  rule : — first  ascertain  the  number  of  pages,  then  divide  them 
into  so  many  sheets  of  folio,  and  commence  laying  down  the  first  two 
and  last  two,  which  form  the  first  sheet,  and  so  on  to  the  centre  one, 
always  remembering  that  the  odd  pages  stand  on  the  left  and  the  even 
on  the  right ;  the  folios  of  each  two  forming  one  more  than  the  num- 
ber of  pages  in  the  work :  for  example,  let  us  suppose  the  work  to 
consist  of  thirty-six  pages,  which  is  nine  sheets  of  folio,  then  they 
should  be  laid  down  according  to  the  scheme  at  the  foot  of  the  oppo- 
site page. 


152 


IMPOSITION. 


Two  Sheets  of  Folio,  Quired,  or  lying  one  in  another. 

Inner  Form  of  the  Outer  Sheet. 


Inner  Form  of  the  Inner  Sheet. 


I  36  35  2,  /si 
7  30  29  8,  ^/A 
13  24      23  14,     7M 


3  34      33     4.     ^'^ 

9  28      27  10,    j-M 

15  22      21   16,     (SM 


5  32 

31  6, 

J'i 

II  26 

25  12, 

6th 

17  20 

19  18, 

gth 

The  furniture  must  be  reduced  in  the  backs  of  the  inner  sheets,  to 
allow  for  stitching. 


IMPOSITION. 


153 


A  Sheet  of  Common  Quarto. 

\ 

e 

1 

A 

« 

A  St 

leet  of 

Oil 

Quarto,  the  E 
Work 

road  "^ 

s  of  }i 

A^ay,  commoi] 
[usic. 

ly  used  in 

\ 

s 

1 

1 

A 

8 

Oxii 

er 

For 

•ni.. 

154 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Sheet  of  Common  Quarto. 


0 

z 

2 

Inner  Form. 


A  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way,  commonly  used  in 
Works  of  Music. 


Inner  Fortn. 


IMPOSITION. 


155 


Two  Half-Sheets  of  Quarto,  worked  together. 


'    4 


Outer  Form. 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Common  Quarto. 


14 


156 


IMPOSiriON. 


Two  Half-Sheets  of  Quarto,  worked  together. 


Inner  Form, 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way. 


z I         8 

1  I  4 

A 


IMPOSITION. 


157 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Common  Octavo. 

8 

6 

z\ 

5 

1 

A 

16 

13 

4 

Outer 

Fon 

m  of  a  Sheel 

tof  Oc 

tavo,  the  Br 

oad 

Way. 

CO 

(M 

CO 

CO 
1—1 

1 

>;^ 

10 

00 

l-H                       * 

158 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Common  Octavo, 

9 

IT 

01 

I 

; 

3 

14 

15 

o 

Inner 

For 

m  of  a  Shee 

tof  Oc 

tavo,  the  Br 

oad 

Way. 

Cji 

o 

- 

-f 

> 

M 

r- 

c; 

CO 

J 

IMPOSITION. 


159 


Outer  Form  of  Two  Half-Sheets  of  Common  Octavo, 
worked  together. 

\ 

5 

s 

I 

1 

A 

8 

5 

4 

B 

alf  a  Sheet 

of  Coi 

nmon  Octav 

0. 

\ 

e 

9 

8 

1 

8 

7 

2 

14* 


i6o 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of  Two  Half-Sheets  of  Common  Octavo, 
worked  together. 

z 

9 

8 

I 

1 

1 

s 

6 

7 

2 

1 

Two  Qu 

arte 

rs  of  a  Shee 

tof  0 

3tavo,  work 

edt 

ogether. 

z 

o 

t 

11 

T 

1 

4 

3 

o 

1^ 

IMPOSITION. 


i6i 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  12  of  the  Work, 
and  4  of  other  Matter. 

c 

£ 

8 

e 

1 

A 

12 

9 

4 

Outer  F 

orn 

1  of  a  Sheet 

of  Oct 

avo,  of  Hebi 

-ew 

Work. 

c 

9 

z\ 

6 

8 

4 

13 

16 

1 

l62 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  12  of  the  Work, 
and  4  of  other  Matter. 


10 


11 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  of  Hehrew  WorL 


I 

01 

IT 

9 

2 

15 

14 

3 

IMPOSITION. 


163 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposec 
the  Centre. 

.  from 

Z\ 

e 

8 

6 

13 

4 

1 

A 

16 

A  Half 

-Sh 

eet  of  Octa\ 

ro,  Im 

Dosed  from 

the 

Centre. 

9 

8 

\ 

e 

7 

2 

1 

A 

8 

164 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner 

Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from 
the  Centre. 

01 

I 

9 

II 

15 

2 

3 

14 

Two  Qi 

lart 

Brs  of  a  Sh 
th( 

eet  of 
)  Cent 

Octavo,  Im 
re. 

pos( 

)d  from 

f 

z 

/■ 

z 

0 

3 

« 

1 

A 

4 

L 

IMPOSITION. 


165 


> 

- 

CO 

1— 1 

0 

CT> 

-i 

0 

1 

to 

t^ 

2 

hJ^ 

I— 

"—I 

0 

>-»» 
^ 

^ 

CT> 

ti 

0 

=0 

J<l 

'"' 

0 

gP. 

0 
CO 

*> 

iO 

a>                  < 

1 

w 

«o 

►— 1 

CD 
1-J 

S^ 

§ 

t-s 

Oi 

lO 

tc 

" 

" 

03 

CD 

CD 

to 

00 

■* 

00 

" 

0 
1-^ 

^ 

a> 

<j 

to 

t^ 

^ 

i66 


IMPOSITION. 


IMPOSITION. 


167 


1 

5 

A  Sheet  of  Twelves,  with  Two  Signatures. 
■                                  1                                  ■ 

>•                    I-" 

00 

0 

(71 

1—' 

<75 

OS 

?1 

CO 

(M 

C-1 

>*^ 

^               "3 

^ 

05 

CO 

-X. 

- 

Oi 

0 

to 

t- 

1—1 

15 


1 68 


IMPOSITIOX. 


► 

- 

- 

1    . 

>- 

B 

M 

3» 

«^ 

S 

o 

13 

V 

cr 

- 

- 

X 

c 
•-* 

—9 

« 

p 

1 

U 

M 

» 

1 
1 

^ 

- 

'I*' 

«                             =" 

1 

r 

M 

06 

ac 

o 

' 

af 

s 

- 

-                                        1 

-- 

© 

« 

M 

CC 

a 

a 

^ 

1 

IMPOSITION. 


169 


0 

i 
1 

CO 

!M 

«2 

>;^ 

I— 1                           •< 

I> 

0 
00 

0 

0 

TC 
CD 

a> 
S3- 

0 
>-^ 

1 

CO 

(M 

00 

0 

- 

0                        ^ 

0 

I— 1 

■x> 

bO 

CO 

!>• 

> 

- 

-* 

00 

I-" 
to 

a> 

0               '3 

lyo 


IMPOSITION. 


to 

o 

CO 

1^1 

-H 

>^ 

lO 

Oi                           <i^ 

> 

> 

^ 

00 

IM 

o 

^^s 

t^ 

CO 

^ 

4- 

< 

►— * 

-    s 

■73 

o 

CO 

1 

l=»- 

tii 

CO 

1 

Tf< 

I— ( 

o 

B 

13- 

c:^ 

to 

I^ 

-^ 

CO 

a> 

o; 

CO 

o 

to 

OS 

to 

'" 

" 

IMPOSITION. 


171 


Outer  Form  of  a 

Sheet  of  Long  Twelves. 

>                                        ■— ' 

-V 

Oi 

CO 

«o 

"M 

00 

10 

^I 

0 

-M 

( 

)iie 

-third,  01 

To  be  irr 

8  pag 

posed  as 

es, 

a  s 

of 

ip,  c 

a  Sheet  of  Twel 

r   in  the  off-cross. 

ves 

• 

1 

A 

8 
OiitPr 

0 
Form. 

4 

15« 


172 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of  a 

Sheet  of  Long  Twelves. 

CO 

c-i 

h*^ 

■0 

- 

0 

05 

t-- 

CD 

CO 

to 
to 

- 

CO 

( 

he 

-third,  01 

To  be  irr 

'  8  pag 

posed  as 

es,  of  i 

a  slip,  c 

I  Sheet  of  Twel 

r   in  the  off-cross. 

ves 

. 

3 

a2 

6 

7 

fnmt. 

2 

- 

IMPOSITION. 


173 


174 


IMPOSITION. 


— -             1 

U^ 

P5 

*■ 

^ 

-f< 

Tl 

CD 

1 

-^ 

■•  ' 

! 

1 

•D 

•— ^ 

(X 

iC 

CC 

TO 

-^ 

^ 
0 

-~ 

<1 

2. 

? 

^ 

3 

^1 

'^ 

-f 

i 

to 

01? 

C3 

tz. 

3 

en 

- 

X 

-1 

■ri 

> 

1 

w 

P5 

tj 

^_. 

»-0 

^ 

'"' 

o 

t3- 

O 

^^ 

Tl 

^ 

-r 

oc 

V* 

1— 

— 

1 

?3- 

CO 

1 

1 

1 

IMPOSITION. 


175 


0 

^ 

_ 

w 

I^ 

tc 

C5 

0 

tc 

1-H 

0 

T^ 

i?*" 

i| 

2 

> 

l^0 

rt< 

to 

GO 

s 

CO 

Oi 

H 

c-^ 

CE> 

0 
1-^ 

(X 

Oi 

to 

iC 

B-' 

» 

OT 

^ 

e^ 

0 

(_. 

0 

0 

t3 

a> 

crq 

es 

ti 

CO 

t^ 

c 
-* 

CV 

■M 

tc 

'i\ 

k4 

"5 

5- 

*? 

CO 

CO 

H- ' 

0 

s 

_ 

0 

CO 

t* 

lO 

•^ 

M 

176 


IMPOSITIOX. 


A  Half-Sheet  ( 

Containing 

)f  EighteeES 

16  pages. 

(1) 

SI 

1 

9 

II 

\ 

SI 

8 

6 

^i 

S 

1 

A 

16 

7 

1 

10 

15 

2 

A 

Ha 

If-Shee 

t  c 

1 

f  Eight 

eens 

(2) 

\\ 

5 

01 

6 

9 

81 

i 

?' 

91 

z\ 

I 

91 

8 

1 

18 

11 

1 

8 

17 

2 

(•)  The  white  paper  of  this  half-sheet  being  worked  off,  the  centre  pages  mu 
be  transposed, — viz.  pages  7  and  10  in  the  room  of  9  and  8,  and  pages  9  and 
in  the  place  of  7  and  10 :  when  this  is  done,  your  imposition  will  be  true. 

OWhen  the  white  paper  is  worked  off,  transpose  the  form, — viz.  pages  1 
and  8  in  the  room  of  7  and  12,  and  pages  7  and  12  in  the  place  of  11  and  8 
this  being  done,  the  sheet  will  then  fold  up  right. 

St 

8 

I 

IMPOSITION. 


\11 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens, 
together. 

to  be  folded 

5 

32 

29 

8 

17 

20 

\ 

88 

8S 

6 

91 

\Z 

1 

A 

36 

25 

12 

13 

24 

Outer 

For 

in  of  '(. 

iSh 

eet  of  Eighteens, 

witl 

lOneS 

)igllj 

iture. 

01 

LZ 

9S 

II 

OS 

ZI 

8 

66 

Z2 

e 

?;s 

C'l 

1 

A 

36 

33 

4 

23 

14 

^, 

178 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form 

of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens, 
together. 

to  be  folded 

1 

19 

is 

' 

30 

31 

(5 

oo 

c-[ 

01 

lo 

fC 

8 

23 

14 

11 

,       26 

1 

35 

2 

Inner 

Fo] 

m  of 

a  SI 

leet  of  Eighteens, 

wit 

iOneJ 

Sign 

ature. 

KI 

f;i 

r.i 

to 

So 

-,v 

6 

91 

\7. 

n 

I!-: 

oj; 

J 

1 

•i\ 

1 

34 

35 

"" 

IMPOSITION. 


179 


Outer  Form  of 

a  Sheet  of  Eigkteens 

,  with  Two 

Signatures. 

8V 

Z\ 

81 

9T 

6 

9 

/ 

8 

l\ 

Oo 

e 

f 

6 

1 

24 

21 

4 

1 

12 

A 

B 

Outer  Form  of  a 

I  Sheet  of  Eighteens 
Signatures. 

with  Three 

1) 

; 

TA 

TTA 

9 

L 

• 

6 

AT 

6 

f 

6 

1 

12 

i 

12 

1 

12 

A 

B 

c 

16 


iSo 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of 

a  Sheet  of  Eight 
Signatures. 

eens 

,  with  Two 

s 

6" 

9 

01 

SI 

n 

II 

01 

f; 

9 

61 

81 

> 

1 

11 

2 

3 

A  2 

22 

23 

2 

In] 

ner 

Form 

of  a 

L  Sheet  of  Eight 
Signatures. 

sens 

with 

Th] 

ree 

,v 

IITA 

oil 
A 

8 

0 

ol 

(Ij 

in 

01 

\ 

11 

1 

11 

" 

ii 

11 

o 

1 

IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Eighteens,  without  Transposition/** 

9 

L 

81 

1    ' 

8 

5 

\ 

6 

91 

QI 

01 

8 

1 

A 

12 

13 

B 

14 

11 

2 

A 

Hal 

f-Shee 

t  of 

Ti 

A^'enties,  with 

Tw( 

)  Signs 

itures. 

a           Ki 

vj- 

en 

CO 

(M 

Oo 

wi 

GO 

h- ' 

o 

1—1 
t-H 

^ 

CO 

•<1 

CD 

1— t 

l«. 

eo 

1 

Oi 

^ 

rH              < 

OThis  mode  of  imposition  is  very  objectionable,  as  there  will  be,  when  the 
paper  is  cut  up,  three  single  leaves. 

IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of  ; 

I  Sheet  of  Twenties. 

1 

o 

- 

C' 

o 

■M 

I- 

CC 

to 

c~. 

CC 

05 
CO 

to 

CO 

-* 

M 

to 

CO 

3C 
CO 

\ 

^ 

I~ 

}i- 

- 

CC 

0 

uter  For 

m  of 

i  Sheet 

of 

Twentie 

s. 

-J 

CC 

CC 

(M 

-f 

.4- 

-.0 

to 

CC 

?i 

l,r 

li 

r^ 

to 

•71 

-r 

o 

■o 

Ol 

C. 

- 

1 

IMPOSITION. 


^^l 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours. 


ol 

81 

91 

6 

01 

51 

^I 

IT 

8 

L\ 

Oo 

0 

9 

61 

81 

l^ 

1 

A 

24 
1 

21 

4 

3 

22 

23 

2 

Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  with 
Two  Signatures. 


SI 


91 


8       :i      OS       e 


24 


21 


98 


Z8 


Of 


88 


68         If         ?t         6 


25 

B 

48 

45 


28 


Itj* 


1 84 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  the  Sixteen-way. 


6 

So 

oo 

8 

91 

6 

7 

18 

19 

6 

13 

12 

8 

il 

Oo 

o 

^I 

11 

1 

A 

24 

21 

4 

15 

10 

Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  with 
Two  Signatures. 


fZ 

G8 

88 

S'8 

01 

ei 

n 

IT 

m 

c^ 

r.t- 

li: 

9 

61 

81 

L 

27 

46 

47 

2(5 

3 

22 

23 

2 

IMPOSITION. 


185 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  without  Inset. 


s 

ei 

01 

L 

81 

8S 

3 

14 

11 

6 

19 

22 

\ 

81 

6 1 

e 

or. 

To 

1 

A 

16 

9 

8 

17 

a2 

24 

A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  without  Inset. 


81 


8S 


se. 


61 


Oo 


\z 


\z 

8       6       61       e 


9         TI        01         Z 


1 

A 

16 

13 


14 


15 


1 86 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Twenty-Fours,  without  CuttiDg. 

5 

20 

17 

8 

1 

1 

< 

18 

19 

6 

"•▼ 

\ 

1 6 

91 

6 

01 

51 

"-T- 

8 

1 

24 

13 

12 

11 

14 

23 

2 

A 

A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos. 

\ 

6^ 

%Z 

tj 

1 

1 

9 

LZ 

08 

8 

13 

20 

21 

12 

11 

A  6 

22 

19 

14 

- 

!tl 

11 

\T- 

(1 

01 

r;s 

81 

51 

1 

;>•) 

2") 

s 

;i 

( 

26 

31 

2 

A 

IMPOSITION. 


187 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Tliirty-Twos. 


19 


98 


66 


I 


13 
a7 


52 


45 


20 


8r, 


Ui 


09 


21 


44 


53 


12 


91   m       8^   L\ 


64 


33 

32 

\Z         11-    95    6 


25 


40 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  with  Four  Signatures. 


og 

89 

o9 

19 

98 

c-f- 

8f 

a 
88 

55 

58 

59 

54 

37 

44 

41 

40 

8 

6 

r.t 

5 

ZZ 

LZ- 

9S 

?Z 

1 

A 

10 

13 

4 

19 

30 

31 

18 

1 88 


IMPOSITION. 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos. 


9 

69 

88 

LZ 

08 

98 

S9 

8 

11 

54 

43 

22 

19 

46 

51 

14 

01 

es* 

Z\ 

8S 

81 

l\ 

05 

91 

7 

58 

39 

26 

31 

34 

63 

2 

Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  with  Four  Signatures. 


t-8 


L\ 


9^ 


39    42    43    38       53    60    57    56 


19 


f9 


^\ 


\Z         9o    '^Z         \Z 


9     II    01 


r^ 


29 


14 


IMPOSITION. 


189 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  with  Two  Signatures. 


81 

18 

08 

61 

02 

as 

ZZ 

a 

23 

26 

27 

22 

21 

28 

25 

24 

8 

6 

Z\ 

e 

9 

II 

01 

L 

1 

A 

16 

13 

4 

3 

14 

15 

2 

A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty-Twos,  20  pages  of  the  Work, 
4  pages  of  Title,  «fec.,  and  8  of  other  Matter. 


81 


61 


8     6    ol    e 


16 


13 


9 

5"     T 


14 


OS 


9    II    01    :L 


15 


L\ 


190 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Thirty- 

-Si 

xes. 

>      h-l 

■X' 

0 

«o 

--J 

C<1 

CO 

CI 

03 
5-1 

ts5 

00 

CO 

0 

•0 

CO 

CO 
CO 

CO 

C<1 

to 

Or 

CO 

CO 

4- 

»o 

- 

to 

cr. 

CO 

' 

t>3 

CO 

0 

«o 

to 

IM 

4^ 

lO 

t- 

00 

1— ' 

CO 

A 

Ha 

If-Shee 

tc 

f  Thirty-Sixes,  -w 

itl 

lout  Cutti 

ng- 

>    >— ' 

-r 

0. 

-0 

-- 

-M 

CO 

Ci 

CO 
CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

10 

CO 

10 

CO 

0 

0 

10 

-I 

ci 

10 

c. 

oc 

l~ 

0 

in 

OS 

'-£ 

- 1 

Tj 

en 

1 

1 1 

- 

0 

i  ^ 

to 
to 

CO 
CI 

IMPOSITION. 


191 


A  Half-Sheet  of  TMrty-Sixes,  with  Two  Signatures. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Forties. 


91       es       8S       81 


OS 

IS 

\Z 

l\ 

81 

8S 

SS 

61 

5 

36 

33 

8 

7 

34 

35 

6 

^I        LZ       9S       ei 


9 

a2 

32 

29 

12 

11 

30 

31 

10 

1 

A 

40 

37 

4 

3 

38 

39 

2 

17 


192 


IMPOSITION. 


1 

AQi 

1 

larter- 

Sheet  0 

f  Forty-Eights,  with  Two 

III        II        1 

Signatures. 

1    ..  1 

81 

8S 

66 

61 

06 

l6 

t-6 

L\ 

8 

6 

ol 

e 

9 

11 

01 

I 

1 

16 

13 

4 

3 

14 

15 

2 

A 

A 

1 

Half-Sl 

leet  of 

Forty-Eights,  with 
1     1 1 

Twos 

ignatui 

res. 

1 

z 

8S 

66 

8 

96 

L\ 

91- 

7 

18 

19 

t; 

31 

42 

43 

30 

11 

14 

15 

10 

.")5 

38 

39 

34 

"1 

f;T 

!»T 

6 

98 

18 

Of 

88 

8 

l\ 

OS 

0 

T-!.' 

If- 

\\ 

60 

1 

24 

21 

4 

25 

48 

45 

28 

^   1 

11 

IMPOSITION. 


193 


A  Quarter-Sheet  of  Forty-Eights,  without  Cutting. 


5 

20 

17 

8 

- 

7 

18 

19 

6 

\ 

\Z 

91 

6 

01 

51 

ZZ 

8 

1 

24 

13 

12 

11 

14 

23 

2 

A 

1 

A  Half-Sheet  of  Forty-Eights, 

with  Three 

Signatures. 

0 

\Z 

L\ 

9f 

e8 

98 

G^ 

8^ 

88 

39 

42 

43 

38 

37 

44 

41 

40 
a 

81 

IS 

08 

61 

or. 

6S 

S8 

l\ 

23    26    27    22 


21    28    25    24 


6   ?1   _e 
1    16    13   T 


II    OIJ[_Z, 
"■  ""2 


14 


15 


194 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Common  Quarter-Sheet  of  Forty-Eights. 

1 1   1 1   r 1  1 r       I       I 1  1 1  t            If        ■■  1 

z\ 

81 

91 

6 

01 

ex 

f\ 

IT 

1 

s 

LI 

Oo 

e 

9 

61 

81 

L 

1 

A 

24 

21 

4 

1 

3 

22 

23 

2 

A  Quarter-Sheet  of  Sixty-Fours,  with  Two  Signatures. 

1 

u 

81 

18 

08 

61 

0? 

6o 

Z2 

L\ 

23 

26 

••>- 

22 

21 

28 

25 

24 

- 

8 

6 

Z\ 

^ 

9 

n 

01 

^ 

1 

16 

VA 

4 

. 

3 

14 

15 

2 

1 

A 

IMPOSITION. 


195 


13         20         21 


A  Common  Quarter-Sheet  of  Sixty-Fours. 


6S       %z 


12 


LZ        08 


11         22         19         14 


91 


\z 


32 


01         SSJ  I   81  I  |_£I 

26     3in  FT 


A  Quarter-Sheet  of  Sixty-Fours,  20  pages  of  the  Work, 
8  of  Title,  and  4  of  other  Matter. 


vi    17    20 


19 


18 


SI 


16    13 


TI 


14 


01 


15 


17* 


196 


IMPOSITION. 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Sixty-Fours. 


z 

89 

f8 

18 

90 

68 

85 

i 

15 

50 

47 

18 

23 

42 

55 

10 

\\ 

le 

91^ 

61 

r<o 

8f- 

T-e 

TI 

.3 

62 

35 

30 

27 

38 

59 

6 

\ 

19 

98 

60 

ST. 

Li: 

09 

e 

,:> 

52 

45 

20 

21 

44 

53 

12 

91 

6^ 

S'l' 

II 

\Z 

If- 

O'J 

6 

1 

04 

3:? 

32 

'iry 

40 

''X 

8 

A 

IMP  OS  I TI  ox. 


197 


A  Half-Sheet  of  Seventy 

-Twos,  with 

Tl 

iree  Signatures. 

-    ^ 

'J5 

°=       en 

CO 

^1 

c-^ 

^1 

--0 

GO 

I— 1 

00 

CO 

0 

30 

CO 

<£5 

CI 

10 

CO 

00 

05 

OJ 

CO 

CO 
CO 

00 
CO 

CO 

CO 

00 

05 

00 

10 

CO 

bO 

05 

-J 

0 

CO 

CO 

CO 

"^ 

0 

4- 

<» 

0 

CO 

1^ 

Ktl 

01 

10 

0 

CO 

01 

tl 

0 

CO 

a:. 

CO 

to 

0 

Ol 

^1 

CO 

Ol 

^J 

Or 

0 

to 

05 

CO 

00 

^         < 

198                                      IMPOSITION. 

i>    1-        «                  g 

0                                    ^1                 CO 

0                              1-              to 

s      °>            s 

s           ^     s 

5        S                 S 

s            a      g 

*-           in                       21 

S                   g         £ 

5        ?!                  " 

1 1    1 1    1 1     > 

m                        Si            oc                  ^ 

05        t^                 ^ 

0            cj                        JZ 

1 ^ 

1 1      1 1      1 1       g 

CO              CO                              *. 

00                        00           to                 0 

■*                                    CO                 05                         "-^ 

s      s            s 

1 

"  ^      s            sg 

fS        S                  fe 

1 1       1 1       1 1         ^' 

1 1       I 1        1 1         g. 

«o           e^                        CO 

to                                 <o                T,"                       S? 

g           S                         g 

00                 CO                         « 

cc                          <n            CO                   3 

CO                «,                                  g 

10                                    CO                 CO 

E        =                  g 

S                         c!            t- 

S;         2                   2! 

-f                        -10 

to                          cc            00 

M         t~                   g; 

?  «           rj       g  « 

IMPOSITION. 


199 


>    -      «>               0!      s 

;^i     0             1=^      ;^ 

S     ="             s     s 

-      .=^                El      B 

5      3                §       S 

*.      L,                £       S 

1 1  1 1  Liil  l^_J  g- 

►-            C]                              CO            to 

«         (M                      -a         CO 

cs    s          £    i      ^ 

0                S                                         !»»•<# 

CD 

1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1  l-d 

e                §                                         &                ^ 

cc          to                        ^          £■               im^ 

CO             IM                                 0             CO        " 

»        ^             ^                                 g             ^ 

— '■  ^ 

1 1     1 1     1 1     1 1       , 

CO         lo                        ►;*          r- 
to           cq                            to           rt< 

to          aj                        *.          0 

to             -M                                 CO             Tl< 

to     -t             s     s        § 

to          ^                         CO          >o 

0             ■M                                 00             CO 

1 1  I 1  I 1  1 1  t^ 

"      0               g      g 

1 1       1 1      1 1       1 p5 

::      S             §      3 

S      f:               S      g          i 

^1             ,-                                 >-             CO 

CO           j:                          ii          ^ 

t>5             t-                                 g             g        ft 

QE3QE3 

PROOF-READING  AND   CORRECTING. 


PROOF-READING. 


UNDENIABLE  as  is  the  fact 
that  a  1 


book  marred  by  typo- 
graphical errors  and  gram- 
matical blemishes  is  a  scandal 
to  the  profession,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  a  careful,  steady, 
and  competent  reader  is  in- 
dispensable in  every  printing- 
office. 

It  is  eminently  desirable 
that  a  reader  should  have 
been  previously  brought  up 
a  compositor.  By  a  practical 
acciuaintance  with  the  me- 
chanical departments  of  the 
business,  he  will  be  better  able  to  detect  those  manifold  errata 
which,  unperceived  by  the  man  of  mere  learning  and  science, 
lie  lurking,  as  it  were,  in  a  thousand  different  forms,  in  every 
sheet;  and  which,  if  overlooked,  justly  offend  the  taste  and 
discernment  of  all  appreciators  of  correct  and  beautiful  typo- 
graphy. 

Some  of  the  principal  imperfections  which  are  more  easily 
observed  by  the  man  of  practical  knowledge  in  tlie  art  of 
printing  are  the  following:  viz.  imperfect,  wrong-founted,  and 
inverted  letters,  particularly  the  lower-case  n,  o,  s,  and  u,  as 
well  as  p,  d,  b,  and  q;  awkward  and  irregular  spacing;  un- 
even pages  or  columns;  a  false  disposition  of  the  reference 
200 


PR  O  OF- READING. 


marks;  crookedness  in  words  and  lines;  bad  making-up  of 
matter;  erroneous  indention,  &c.  These  minutiae,  whicli  are 
rather  imperfections  of  workmanship  than  literal  errors,  are 
apt  to  be  overlooked  and  neglected  by  mere  literary  readers. 

A  person  of  a  thoroughly  cultivated  typographical  taste,  a 
quick  eye,  and  a  ready  mind,  though  not  a  compositor,  may 
doubtless  be  competent  to  detect  those  minor  deviations  from 
exact  workmanship  in  a  proof  which  the  inexperienced  and 
the  careless  are  apt  to  overlook.  But,  without  these  qualifica- 
tions, no  person  can  be  safely  intrusted  to  read  a  sheet  for 
press,  and  the  labours  of  the  printer  are  liable  to  go  forth  into 
the  world  in  a  manner  that  will  reflect  discredit  on  the  em- 
ployed and  give  offence  to  the  employer.  No  form,  therefore, 
ought  to  be  put  to  press  until  it  has  been  read  and  revised  by 
an  experienced  reader. 

A  thorough  prool-reader,  in  addition  to  a  general  and  prac- 
tical acquaintance  with  typography,  should  understand  clearly 
the  grammar  and  idiomatic  structure  of  his  mother-tongue, 
and  have,  as  it  were,  an  encyclopedic  knowledge  of  the  names, 
times,  and  productions  of  its  writers,  as  well  as  an  entire 
familiarity  with  the  Bible  especially,  and  with  Shakspeare. 
He  should  be,  in  fact,  a  living  orthographical,  biographical, 
bibliographical,  geographical,  historical,  and  scientific  dic- 
tionary, with  some  smattering  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  German.  Yet  all  these  accom- 
plishments are  valueless  unless  he  also  possess  a  keen  and 
quick  eye,  that,  like  a  hound,  can  detect  an  error  almost  by 
scent.  There  are  eyes  of  this  sort,  that  with  a  cursory  glance 
will  catch  a  solitary  error  in  a  page.  The  world  is  little  aware 
how  greatly  many  authors  are  indebted  to  a  competent  proof- 
reader for  not  only  reforming  their  spelling  and  punctuation, 
but  for  valuable  suggestions  in  regard  to  style,  language,  and 
grammar, — thus  rectifying  faults  which  would  have  rendered 
their  works  fair  game  for  the  critic. 

Although  no  corrector  of  the  press  can  strictly  be  required 
to  do  otherwise  than  to  follow  his  copy, — that  is,  faithfully  to 
adhere  to  the  original,  with  all  its  defects, — yet  every  one  must 
perceive  that  he  performs  a  friendly  and  perhaps  a  charitable 
service,  by  pointing  out,  in  proper  time,  imperfections  and 
mistakes  which  have  escaped  the  observation  of  a  quick  or 
voluminous  writer.    With  the  spirit,  the  opinions,  the  whims 


PR  O  OF-READING. 


of  an  author,  no  corrector  of  the  press  has  any  business  to 
interfere.  In  reprints  of  old  and  standard  works,  no  license  of 
alteration  ought  to  be  granted  to  either  correctors  or  editors. 

Strict  uniformity  should  always  be  preserved  in  the  use  of 
capitals,  in  orthography,  and  punctuation.  Nothing  can  be 
more  vexatious  to  an  author  than  to  see  the  words  ho?iour, 
favour,  &c.  spelt  with  and  without  the  u.  This  is  a  discre- 
pancy which  correctors  ought  sedulously  to  prevent.  The 
above  observations  equally  apply  to  the  use  of  capitals  to 
noun-substantives,  &c.  in  one  place,  and  the  omission  of  them 
in  another.  However  the  opinions  of  authors  may  differ  in 
these  respects,  still  the  system  of  spelling,  &c.  must  not  be 
varied  in  the  same  work. 

When  an  author  gives  him  the  option,  a  proof-reader  ought 
to  spell  ambiguous  words  and  arrange  compounds  in  a  me- 
thodical and  uniform  way ;  and,  to  enable  the  compositors  to 
become  acquainted  with  and  to  observe  his  method,  he  should 
furnish  for  their  guidance  a  list  of  such  ambiguous  words  and 
compounds. <!' 

Such  being  the  qualifications  of  a  reader,  we  exhibit  the 
process  which  proof-sheets  ought  to  undergo  before  the  pages 
are  put  to  press. 

When  a  first  proof  is  pulled,  the  compositor  who  imposed 
the  sheet  ought  to  collect  and  arrange  the  copy,  and  deliver 
both  to  the  reader,  who,  after  folding  the  sheet  to  prove  the 
accuracy  of  its  imposition,  carefully  examines  the  signatures, 
head-lines,  and  paging.  He  then  calls  his  reading-boy,  to 
read  the  copy  aloud  to  him.  This  boy  should  be  able  to  read 
with  ease  and  distinctness  any  copy  put  into  his  hands.  The 
eye  of  the  reader  should  not  follow,  but  rather  precede,  the 
voice  of  the  boy:  accustomed  to  this  mode,  he  will  be  able  to 
anticipate  every  single  word  in  the  copy;  and,  should  a  word 
or  sentence  happen  to  be  missing  in  the  proof,  his  attention 
will  the  more  sensibly  be  arrested  by  it  when  he  hears  it  pro- 
nounced by  his  reading-boy.  He  ought  to  be  careful  lest  his 
eyes  advance  too  far  before  the  words  of  the  boy ;  because,  in 
his  attention  to  the  author's  meaning,  he  will  be  apt  to  read 
words  in  the  proof  which  do  not  actually  appear  there,  and 
the  accuracy  of  the  reading-boy  will  but  tend  to  confirm  him 
in  the  mistake. 


W  See  pages  318-332. 


PR  O  OF-READING. 


203 


When  the  reading  of  the  sheet  is  concluded,  the  number 
(if  more  than  one)  of  the  volume,  signature,  and  prima,  or  first 
word  of  the  ensuing  sheet,  should  be  accurately  marked  on 
the  margin  of  the  copy,  and  a  bracket  made  before  the  first 
word  of  the  next  sheet,  in  order  that  the  compositor,  should 
he  not  have  composed  beyond  the  sheet,  may  know  where  to 
begin,  without  having  the  trouble  of  referring  either  to  the 
proof  or  the  form,  and  the  reader  will  be  certain  that  the  com- 
mencement is  right  when  he  gets  the  succeeding  sheet.  This 
prevents  unnecessary  trouble  both  to  the  reader  and  com- 
positor. 

Before  the  proof  is  sent  to  the  compositor  to  be  corrected  in 
the  metal,  an  entry  should  be  made  in  a  book,  according  to 
the  following  plan : — 


0    « 

60    H 

NAMES  OP   WORKS. 

SENT  OUT. 

RETURNED. 

1 

READ  FOR 

1878. 

May  2 

"      4 
"     6 
"   10 
"  27 

II 
23 

20 
2 
13 

Decorative   Printing 

American  Printer,  (Revised  Edition) 

Specific  Heat  Tables 

The  Great  Exhibition 

Masterpieces  of  European  Art  .    . 

1878. 

May  2 
"     4 
"     8 

"  10 
"  29 

1878. 

May  4 
"     5 
"   '9 
"   12 

"   30 

1878. 

May  5 
"     6 
"    9 
"  13 
"  30 

This  account  being  punctually  kept,  the  reader  can  furnish 
the  employer  or  overseer  with  an  exact  account  of  the  state  of 
each  work  without  delay  or  inconvenience. 

After  the  compositors  have  corrected  the  errors  in  the  form, 
a  clean  proof  is  pulled,  which,  with  the  first  proof,  is  handed 
to  the  reader,  who  then  collates  the  corrected  sheet  with  the 
one  before  read,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  corrections 
have  been  properly  made,  and  whether  new  errors  have  not 
been  caused  by  negligence  in  the  process;  and,  if  the  work  be 
a  reprint,  or  if  the  author  is  not  to  examine  the  proof,  he  then 
proceeds  to  read  it  very  carefully  for  press. 

Some  proofs  are  so  foul,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the 
compositor  to  correct  all  the  marks  at  one  time,  and  it  is 
therefore  necessary  to  have  the  neglected  errors  corrected  and 
another  sheet  pulled  before  the  proof  is  read  finally.     It  not 

18 


204  PROOF-READING. 

unfrequently  happens  that  compositors,  in  the  course  of  cor- 
recting, transpose  a  letter  or  word,  or  alter  a  letter  in  a  word 
that  is  not  marked,  thus  not  only  leaving  one  error  uncor- 
rected, but  also  making  another;  sometimes  also,  in  respacing 
a  line,  a  space  is  transposed  or  a  hyphen  is  left  in.  Conse- 
quently it  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  re\ising  a  proof,  that  the 
reader  should  not  only  look  at  the  word  marked,  but  he  ought 
also  to  glance  his  eye  over  every  line  in  which  an  alteration 
has  been  made. 

In  offices  where  two  readers  are  employed,  it  is  advisable 
that  a  proof-sheet  should  be  read  over  by  both ;  because  the 
eye,  in  traversing  the  same  ground,  is  liable  to  be  drawn  into 
mistake  and  oversight.  The  interest  e.xcited  by  the  first  read- 
ing having  abated,  a  degree  of  listlessness  imperceptibly  steals 
upon  the  mind,  which  greatly  endangers  the  correctness  of  a 
proof.  Should  outs  or  doubles  occur  in  a  proof,  it  ought  to  be 
again  read  by  copy,  to  detect  any  improper  correction  in  the 
overrunning  or  transposition  of  lines.  Figure  work  should 
always  be  read  twice  by  copy. 

The  duty  of  amending  the  punctuation  should  be  generally 
confined  to  one  reader.  Where  a  compositor  is  liable,  in  this 
particular,  to  the  whim  or  caprice  of  several  readers,  he  cer- 
tainly suffers  injustice,  because  his  time  is  unnecessarily  frit- 
tered away;  and  not  only  is  the  work  retarded,  but  the  types 
are  needlessly  exposed  to  injury,  to  say  nothing  of  the  liability 
of  creating  fresh  errors,  &c. 

Before  a  manuscript  is  brought  to  the  printer,  it  ought  to  be 
as  perfect  as  the  author  can  make  it.  The  compositor  is  bound 
to  "follow  the  copy,"  in  word  and  sentiment,  unless,  indeed, 
he  meets  with  instances  of  wrong  punctuation  or  false  gram- 
mar, (and  such  instances  are  not  rare,)  which  his  intelligence 
enables  him  to  amend.  After  the  matter  has  been  read  and 
corrected  in  the  office,  a  proof  is  sent  to  the  author;  and,  if  it 
corresponds  with  the  copy,  the  compositor's  responsibility  is 
at  an  end.  He  has  done  all  he  is  paid  for;  and,  should  the 
author  desire  any  changes  made  in  his  matter,  of  course  he 
must  pay  for  them. 

Sentiments  in  print  look  marvellously  different  from  the 
same  ideas  in  manuscript;  and  we  are  not  surprised  that 
writers  should  wish  to  polish  a  little;  nor  do  we  object  to 
their  natural  desire  of  amending  or  beautifying  their  mental 


PROOF-READIXG. 


products.  But  let  them  not  forget  that  pay-time  will  come, — 
when  the  item  for  alterations  will  loom  out  with  a  startling 
distinctness  in  the  bill.  They  found  it  easy  in  the  proof  to 
erase  a  word  or  two  here  and  insert  a  word  or  two  there; 
without  dreaming,  perhaps,  that  in  consequence  of  these  little 
erasures  and  insertions  the  compositor  would  be  compelled 
to  alter  and  reconstruct  much  of  his  work.  We  know  of  a 
volume  on  which  the  alterations  alone  have  consumed  time 
equal  to  one  man's  work  for  nearly  two  and  a  half  years. 
How  unreasonable — nay,  how  transparently  unjust — the  ex- 
pectation that  the  printer  should  give  gratuitously  the  time 
and  trouble  requisite  for  the  radical  changes  in  the  type  which 
an  author's  whim  or  taste  may  demand ! 

Stower  says,  "  It  may  not  be  improper,  in  this  place,  just  to 
take  notice  of  the  great  danger  to  the  correctness  of  a  work 
which  arises  from  the  practice,  too  common  with  some  authors, 
of  keeping  their  proof-sheets  too  long  in  their  hands  before 
they  are  returned  to  the  printer.  As  the  pages  in  the  metal 
get  dry,  the  adhesion  of  the  types  to  each  other  is  weakened, 
and  the  swell  or  extension  of  the  quoins  and  furniture,  which 
the  moisture  had  occasioned,  is  removed;  so  that  there  is 
great  danger  of  letters  falling  out  when  a  form  is  long  kept 
from  the  press.  Nor  is  the  danger  which  is  hereby  occasioned 
to  correctness  the  only  inconvenience:  the  impatience  of 
authors  to  see  their  works  in  a  fit  state  for  publication  is 
almost  proverbial.  The  pleasure  arising  from  beholding,  as 
it  were,  the  '  form  and  texture'  of  one's  thoughts,  is  a  sensa- 
tion much  easier  felt  than  described.  That  authors,  therefore, 
may  partake  of  this  pleasure  in  a  speedy  and  regular  suc- 
cession, they  should  make  a  point  of  forwarding  their  proof- 
sheets  to  the  printer  as  quick  as  possible,  not  only  that  they 
may  the  sooner  be  got  ready  for  the  press,  but  that  the  work 
may  proceed  in  a  regular  manner,  without  being  interrupted 
by  the  forwarding  of  other  works  in  lieu  of  that  the  proof- 
sheets  of  which  are  detained  beyond  the  proper  time  in  the 
hands  of  the  author. 

"Authors  are  very  apt  to  make  alterations,  and  to  correct 
and  amend  the  style  or  arguments  of  their  works,  when  they 
first  see  them  in  print.  This  is  certainly  the  worst  time  for 
this  labour,  as  it  is  necessarily  attended  with  an  expense 
which,  in  large  works,  will  imperceptibly  swell  to  a  serious 


2o6  PROOF-READING. 


sum;  when,  however,  this  method  of  alteration  is  adopted  by 
an  author,  the  reader  nmst  always  be  careful  to  read  the 
whole  sheet  o\'er  once  more  with  very  great  attention  before  it 
is  finally  put  to  press. 

"A  proof-sheet,  having  duly  undergone  this  routine  of  pur- 
gation, may  be  supposed  to  be  as  free  from  errata  as  the 
nature  of  the  thing  will  admit,  and  the  word  'Press'  may  be 
written  at  the  top  uf  the  first  page  of  it.  This  is  an  important 
word  to  every  reader:  if  he  have  suffered  his  attention  to  be 
drawn  aside  from  the  nature  of  his  proper  business,  and  errors 
should  be  discovered  when  it  is  too  late  to  have  them  cor- 
rected, this  word  '  Press'  is  as  the  signature  of  the  death- 
warrant  of  his  reputation.  A  reader,  therefore,  should  be  a 
man  of  one  business, — always  upon  the  alert, — all  eye, — all 
attention.  Possessing  a  becoming  reliance  on  his  own  powers, 
he  should  never  be  too  confident  of  success.  Imperfection 
clings  to  him  on  every  side.  Errors  and  mistakes  assail  him 
from  every  quarter.  His  business  is  of  a  nature  that  may 
render  him  obnoxious  to  blame,  but  can  hardly  be  said  to  bring 
him  in  any  very  large  stock  of  praise.  If  errors  escape  him, 
he  is  justly  to  be  censured;  for  perfection  is  his  duty.  If  his 
labours  are  wholly  free  from  mistake, — which  is,  alas !  a  very 
rare  case, — he  has  done  no  more  than  he  ought,  and,  conse- 
quently, can  merit  only  a  comparative  degree  of  commenda- 
tion, in  that  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  more  successful  in 
his  labours  after  perfection  than  some  of  his  brethren  in  the 
same  employment." 

The  form  being  finally  laid  on  the  press,  and  a  revise  pulled 
by  the  pressman,  he  sends  it  to  the  overseer,  who  carefully 
examines  whether  all  the  marks  have  been  attended  to,  and 
looks  along  the  sides  and  heads  of  the  respective  pages,  to 
observe  whether  any  letter  has  fallen  out,  or  there  is  any 
crookedness  in  the  locking  up  of  the  form,  any  battered  let- 
ters, or  any  bite  frorn  the  frisket.  Should  the  revise  prove 
faultless,  he  returns  it  to  the  pressman,  with  the  word  "  Revise" 
written  on  the  margin ;  if  otherwise,  to  the  compositor  to 
whom  the  form  belongs,  for  immediate  correction. 


CORRECTIXG  IX  THE  METAL.  207 


CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL. 

CORRECTIXG  is  the  most  disagreeable  part  of  a  composi- 
tor's business,  diminishing  as  it  does  his  earnings,  and 
causing  great  fatigue,  and,  by  leaning  over  the  stone,  endan- 
gering his  health.  A  foul  proof,  however,  is  a  fault  without 
extenuation,  and  seems  to  deserve  some  punishment.  The 
noise  and  confusion  which  prevail  in  badly  governed  printing- 
offices,  from  light  and  frivolous  conversation,  not  only  retard 
business,  but  distract  the  attention  of  the  compositor  from  the 
subject  he  has  in  hand,  and  cause  him  to  make  many  mistakes. 
Some  men,  no  doubt,  can  support  a  conversation  and  at  the 
same  time  compose  correctly;  but  their  noise  confuses  those 
who  are  unable  to  preserve  accuracy  except  by  close  attention 
to  their  copy  in  silence. 

The  first  proof  should  contain  merely  the  errors  of  the  com- 
positor ;  but  it  frequently  happens  that  the  corrector  heightens 
them  by  his  peculiarities.  When  this  is  unnecessarily  done, 
it  is  an  act  of  injustice  to  the  compositor:  it  is  sufficient  for 
him  to  rectify  such  mistakes  as  arise  either  from  inattention 
to  his  copy  or  want  of  judgment.  The  compositor  ought  not 
to  suffer  from  the  humour  of  a  reader  in  capriciously  altering 
commas  and  semicolons  in  the  first  proof,  which  he  not  unfre- 
quently  re-alters  in  the  second,  from  a  doubt  as  to  the  propri- 
ety of  the  points  to  be  adopted. 

When  a  proof  is  handed  to  the  compositor,  he  should  im- 
mediately correct  it ;  and  the  reader,  correlatively,  should  be 
equally  prompt  in  his  department.  Can  it  reasonably  be 
expected  that  the  compositor  will  feel  inclined  to  forward  his 
proof,  when  he  knows  that  the  reader  will  delay  it  for  hours  ? 

Should  a  compositor  have  transposed  two  or  more  pages, 
either  from  an  error  in  the  folios  or  any  other  cause,  he  must 
unlock  the  quarter  containing  them,  and,  loosening  the  cross 
or  crosses  from  the  furniture,  lift  the  chase  and  the  remain- 
ing quarters  off  the  stone.  Should  he  have  furniture  suflScient 
round  each  page,  he  may  move  them  into  their  proper  stations 
by  pressing  the  balls  of  his  thumbs  and  fingers  against  the 
furniture  at  the  head,  foot,  and  sides  of  each  page.  If  the 
letter  be  small,  it  will  be  advisable  to  wet  the  pages,  because 
few  imposing-stones  are  horizontal,  or  so  steady  that   they 

IS* 


2o8  CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAI. 

will  not  shake  when  touched,  or  by  the  motion  of  the  floor 
occasioned  by  persons  walking  or  dragging  forms  along. 

Should  a  compositor  find  that  his  pages  hang,  he  must  un- 
lock the  quarter,  and  pat  the  face  of  the  type  with  the  balls  of 
his  fingers  until  he  gets  it  into  a  square  position. 

When  a  compositor  unlocks  a  form,  he  should  be  careful 
not  to  leave  the  unlocked  quoins  too  slack,  as  the  force  neces- 
sary to  loosen  the  others  may  squabble  the  matter,  or  occasion 
it  to  hang. 

It  has  been  aptly  said,  "What  is  required  of  a  compositor 
when  he  goes  about  correcting  a  foul  proof,  is  a  sharp  bodkin 
and  patience  ;  because,  without  them,  tlie  letter  cannot  escape 
suffering  by  the  steel,  and  hurrying  will  not  permit  him  to 
justify  the  lines  true.  No  wonder,  therefore,  to  see  pigeon- 
holes in  one  place,  and  pi  in  another."'^^ 

When  the  compositor  has  as  many  corrections  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  left  hand  as  he  can  conveniently 
hold,  or,  what  is  better,  in  his  composing-stick,  (beginning  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page,  in  order  that  they  may  follow  regu- 
larly,) and  an  assortment  of  spaces  on  a  piece  of  paper,  or, 
what  is  more  convenient,  in  a  small  square  bo.\  with  parti- 
tions in  it, — let  him  take  the  bodkin  in  his  right  hand,  and, 
instead  of  raising  each  letter  he  may  have  to  alter,  place  the 
point  of  the  bodkin  at  one  end  of  the  line,  and,  with  the  fore- 
finger of  his  left  hand  against  the  other,  raise  the  wliole  line 
sufficiently  high  to  afford  him  a  clear  view  of  the  spacing;  he 
may  then  change  the  faulty  letter  and  alter  his  spacing  be- 
fore he  drops  the  line.  By  this  method  he  will  not  injure  the 
type,  which  he  must  do  if  he  force  the  bodkin  into  their  sides 
or  heads ;  a  greater  degree  of  regularity  is  insured  where  there 
may  be  occasion  to  alter  the  spacing,  and  no  more  time  is 
taken  up  than  by  the  other  method. 

<''The  following  epitaph  was  no  doubt  written  by  a  printer  after  performing  tlie 
most  disagreeable  task  attendant  on  liis  profession  : — 

No  more  shall  copy  bad  perplex  my  brain. 

No  more  shall  type's  small  face  my  eyeballs  strain ; 

No  more  the  proof's  foul  page  create  me  troubles, 

By  errors,  transpositions,  outs,  and  doubles  : 

No  more  my  head  shall  ache  from  author's  whims, 

As  overrunnings,  driving-outs,  and  ins  ; 

The  sturdy  pressman's  frown  1  now  may  scoff, 

Revised,  corrected,  finally  wrought  off. 


CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL.  209 

In  tables,  and  other  matter,  where  rules  prevent  the  lines 
from  being  raised,  the  letters  must  be  drawn  up  by  the  bodkin. 
This  is  done  by  the  compositor  holding  the  instrument  fast  in 
his  right  hand,  with  the  blade  between  his  forefinger  and 
thumb, within  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  point: 
thus  guiding  it  steadily  to  the  faulty  letter,  he  sticks  the  point 
of  the  bodkin  into  the  neck  of  the  letter  between  the  beard 
and  the  face,  and  draws  it  up  above  the  other  types,  so  that  he 
can  take  it  out  with  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  his  left  hand. 
In  performing  this  operation,  the  blade  of  the  bodkin  should 
be  kept  as  flat  as  possible  on  the  face  of  the  type,  but  it  should 
not  touch  any  of  the  surrounding  types,  as  the  slightest  graze 
imaginable  will  injure  their  face,  and  they  will  consequently 
appear  imperfect  in  the  next  proof,  when  he  will  have  the 
trouble  of  altering  them,  his  employer  suffering  the  loss  of 
the  type. 

The  bodkin  blade  being  held  almost  flat  to  the  form,  a  small 
horizontal  entrance  of  its  point  into  the  neck  of  the  letter  will 
raise  it  above  the  face  of  the  form ;  but,  if  the  bodkin  be  held 
nearly  upright,  it  will  not  have  sufficient  purchase  to  draw  the 
letter  up,  because  the  weight  of  the  letter  and  the  pressure  of 
the  surrounding  types  will  have  greater  power  than  the  sharp 
point  of  the  steel.  By  pressing  sidewise,  the  bodkin  blade 
acts  as  a  lever,  even  though  it  has  no  other  purchase  than  the 
slight  motion  of  the  hand. 


COMMON    BODKIN. 

In  the  olden  times  the  printer  made  his  own  bodkin  by 
inserting  the  blunt  end  of  a  large  steel  needle  in  a  piece  of 
wood  or  cork.  At  the  present  day,  when  every  thing  is  pre- 
pared to  the  workman's  hand,  bodkins  are  manufactured  by 
printers'  furnishers,  and  he  may  take  his  choice  of  styles. 
The  above  cut  shows  a  common  form;  but  in  some  cases  (as 
in  table  work)  tweezers  or  a  spring  bodkin  may  be  preferred. 


POCKET   SPRING    BODKIN. 

Knives  may  also  be  had  with  bodkin  attached,  which  serv^e 
a  double  purpose.    The  objection  to  the  knife-bodkin  is  that 


CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL. 


TWEEZERS. 


the  handle  is  too  heavy  and  cumbersome,  and  it  is  sure  to 
injure  type  should  it  happen  to  slip  from  the  fingers  and  fall 
on  the  page. 


SPRING   BODKIN. 

The  most  careful  compositor  cannot  at  all  times  avoid 
leaving  a  word  out,  or  composing  the  same  word  twice.  When 
this  happens,  he  should  consider  the  best  mode  of  rectifying  the 
accident,  by  driving  out  or  getting  in,  either  above  the  error 
or  below  it.  This  ascertained,  let  the  matter  be  taken  upon 
a  galley,  and  overrun  in  the  composing-stick.  Overrunning 
on  the  stone  is  an  unsafe,  unworkmanlike,  and  dilatory  method, 
destroying  the  justification  and  rendering  the  spacing  uneven. 


KNIFE    AND    BODKI 


In  correcting,  care  should  he  taken  to  avoid  hair-spacing  a 
line,  by  overrunning  either  back  or  forward.  In  overrunning 
the  matter,  the  division  should  be  used  as  little  as  possible; 
for,  though  the  compositor  may  carefully  follow  the  instruc- 
tions laid  down  in  this  work  on  the  subject  of  spacing  and 
dividing,  yet  the  effect  of  his  attention  will  be  completely  de- 
stroyed if  not  followed  up  at  the  stone. 


TYPO GRA PHICA L  MA RKS. 


We  here  emphatically  remark  that,  if  authors  were  careful 
to  spell  properly  the  names  of  persons  and  places,  technical 
and  scientific  terms,  &c.,  and  to  write  legibly,  marking  the 
end  of  sentences  clearly,  the  work  of  the  compositor  would  be 
facilitated,  many  errors  would  be  prevented,  and  time,  temper, 
and  expense  greatly  economized. 

Further.  Let  us  remind  authors  that  every  correction  made 
on  their  proof  that  is  a  variation  from  the  copy  as  furnished  to 
the  printer  is  charged  for  according  to  the  time  required  to 
make  it.  The  justice  of  the  charge  is  obvious;  yet,  strange  to 
say,  there  is  probably  no  item  so  frequently  disputed  by  pub- 
lishers. A  man  employs  a  mechanic  to  build  a  house  accord- 
ing to  fixed  specifications ;  but,  in  the  course  of  its  erection,  he 
improves  or  changes  the  plan,  and  orders  certain  portions  to 
be  torn  down  and  rebuilt:  is  the  mechanic  to  bear  the  loss? 
Certainly  not.  So,  when  a  compositor  builds  up  his  page  of 
type  according  to  the  copy  furnished,  he  is  right  in  requiring 
compensation  for  alterations  made  in  it.  He  is  not'  to  suffer 
for  the  author's  desire  to  improve  his  intellectual  edifice. 


PRINTER'S   KNIFE. 


TYPOGRAPHICAL  MARKS  EXEMPLIFIED. 

THE  following  table  will  be  appreciated  by  authors  and 
by  all  who  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  the  techni- 
cal marks  used  by  practical  readers.  Due  attention  to  the 
explanations  will  insure  an  apt  proficiency  in  the  manual  de- 
partment of  proof-reading. 


TYPOGRAPHICAL  MARKS 


^d,  /  Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
/the  individual  by  wWbm  the  art  of  printing  was    ^J 
first  discovered;    yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting    Peter  Schoeffer    to  be  the  person  ^  ^^_^ 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
M    the  art  -^  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gu- 
'\\  tenbergs/  he   is   also   supposed   to  have   been 
*^   the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.    The^/-/ 
following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,    ^; 
*     '^y '  Jo- ^  Fred  J  Faustus, '  of  ^^Ascheffenburg : 
*°l — I  a'  P^ter    Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving  ^y^^^^^ 
»'\»/   his   master  Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
"^  ^desirous  "l  ardently]  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by    the    good    providence   of  God)    the 
method   of   cutting  {iMcideftdi)   the  characters    •^^«^''^- 
in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
5^/   singly   cast  I   instead   of   bieng   cut.      He    pri- "//.. 
»4  I    vately   cut  matrices'^  for   tlie   whole   alphabet: 
Faust   was   so   pleast-d    with    tlie   contrivaiK 
--^at  he  promised  ^eter  to  give  him  h>8^nly  '''^^'^ 
'*  -"^ughter    Christina    in    marriage,   >ar   promise  3   /^     / 
"^hich  he  soon  after  performed^>^  ^^ 

''    ^ /       ^"^    there    were    manv/difficulties  at    first    ^^  " 
with   these  letters,  as  >tnere  had  been  before 


with  wooden   on^»f  the  metal   being  too  soft  ^  /y^    / 
to  support  tli^^orce  of   the  im  pression:   but  =■ '    ~ 


O 


this    defecr   was   soon    remedied,    by    mixing 

3        /^  2  1.  ,2 

a  suljgifance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently    ^. 
hitnlened  it/ 

einc/  -uiue?i  ue  :>/irOZctec/  ucd  ^ncid^ei  ^ne 
ce^^C'U  cdd^  Aof?i  ^/ie:ie  9?ia^U'c6-j . 


EXEMPLIFIED.  213 


Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
person  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having 
learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the 
Gutenbergs :  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  Ascheffenburg : 

'  Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Faust's  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  {ificideiidi)  the  characters  in 
a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet:  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Oiristitia  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with 
a  substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it.' 


214  TYPOGRAPHICAL  MARKS. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 

A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  b}'  drawing  a  short  per- 
pendicular line  through  it,  and  making  another  short  line  in 
the  margin,  behind  which  the  right  letter  is  placed.  ( See  No.  i.) 
So  with  whole  words  also,  a  line  being  drawn  across  the  wrong 
word  and  the  right  one  written  in  the  margin  opposite. 

A  turned  letter  is  noted  by  drawing  a  line  through  it,  and 
writing  the  mark  No.  2  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  require  to  be  altered  to  make  them  more 
conspicuous,  a  parallel  line  or  lines  must  be  made  underneath 
the  word  or  letter, — viz.  for  capitals,  three  lines ;  small  capi- 
tals, two  lines;  and  Italic,  one  line;  and,  in  the  margin  oppo- 
site the  line  where  the  alteration  occurs,  Caps,  Siiia//  Caps,  or 
Ital.  must  be  written.     (See  No.  3.) 

When  letters  or  words  are  set  double,  or  are  required  to  be 
taken  out,  a  line  is  drawn  through  the  superfluous  word  or 
letter,  and  the  mark  No.  4  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

Where  the  punctuation  requires  alteration,  the  correct  point 
should  be  written  in  the  margin.     (vSeeNo.  5.) 

When  a  space  has  been  omitted  between  two  words,  a  caret 
must  be  made  where  the  separation  ought  to  be,  and  the  sign 
No.  6  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

When  a  word  should  form  a  compoimd  with  another,  it  is 
denoted  as  in  No.  7. 

When  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the  place 
of  omission,  and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  a  line  is  too  widely  spaced,  the  mark  No.  9  must  be 
placed  between  the  words  and  also  in  the  margin. 

Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is  drawn 
in  the  margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sen- 
tence.    (See  No.  10.) 

No.  II  shows  the  way  in  which  the  apostrophe,  inverted 
conmias,  the  star  and  other  references,  and  superior  letters 
and  figures,  are  marked. 

Wliere  two  words  are  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  over  one 
word  and  below  the  other,  and  the  mark  No.  12  placed  in  the 
margin;  but  where  several  words  require  to  be  transposed, 
their  right  order  is  signified  by  a  figure  placed  over  each  word, 
and  the  mark  No.  12  in  tlie  margin. 

Where  words  have  been  struck  out  that   have  afterward 


TABLE  OF  SIGNATURES.  215 

been  approved  of,  dots  should  be  marked  under  them,  and 
stet  written  in  the  margin.     (See  No.  13.) 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  horizontal 
line  is  drawn  under  it,  and  the  mark  No.  14  placed  opposite, 
in  the  margin. 

Where  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  are  tran- 
scribed at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the 
place  of  omission  to  the  written  words,  (see  No.  15 ; )  but  if  the 
omitted  matter  is  too  extensive  to  be  copied  at  the  foot  of  the 
page,  Out,  see  copy,  is  written  in  the  margin,  and  tlie  missing 
lines  are  enclosed  between  brackets,  and  the  word  Out  is 
inserted  in  the  margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  stand  crooked,  they  are  noted  by  a  line,  (see 
No.  16;)  but,  where  a  page  hangs,  lines  are  drawn  across  the 
entire  part  affected. 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  fount,  is  im- 
properly introduced  into  the  page,  it  is  noted  by  the  mark 
No.  17,  which  signifies  wrong  fount. 

If  a  paragraph  is  improperly  made,  a  line  is  drawn  from 
the  broken-off  matter  to  the  ne.xt  paragraph,  and  No  \  written 
in  the  margin.     (See  No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  has  been  left  out  or  is  to  be  added,  a  caret 
must  be  made  in  the  place  where  it  should  come  in,  and  the 
word  written  in  the  margin.     (See  No.  19.) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  is  denoted  by  making  a 
cross  under  it,  and  placing  a  similar  mark  in  the  margin,  (see 
No.  20;)  though  some  prefer  to  draw  a  perpendicular  line 
through  it,  as  in  the  case  of  a  wrong  letter. 

Where  a  word  has  been  accidentally  separated  by  a  space, 
it  is  marked  as  in  No.  21. 


TABLE  OF  SIGNATURES. 

ON  the  two  following  pages  will  be  found  a  complete  list 
of  signatures  for  books  in  octavo,  twelves  and  eighteens, 
sixteens,  and  twenty-fours. 

The  24mo  signatures  in  this  table  are  arranged  to  bring  the 
second  signature  on  either  the  9th  or  17th  page  of  the  form. 
If  the  sheet  is  to  be  folded  as  an  8vo  and  i6mo,  the  figure  sig- 
natures may  be  used;  but  if  as  two  i2mos,  the  letter  signa- 
tures will  be  used. 

19 


2l6 


COMPLETE  TABLE 


1 


9 

17 

25 

33 

41 

49 

57 

65 

73 

81 

89  , 

97 
105 
"3 
121 
I2g 
137 
M5 
153 
161 
169 
177 
185 
193 
201 
209 
217 
225 

233 
241 
'249 
257 
265 
273 
281 
289 
297 
305 
313 
321 
329 
337 
345 
353 
361 
369 
377 
385 
393 
401 
409 
417 
425 
433 
441 

449 
457 
465 
473 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 

R 
S 
T 
U 
V 

w 

X 

Y 
Z 

•JC,  2  A 

27  2B 

28  2C 

29  2  D 

30  2  E 

31  2  F 


6 


24 


2G 
2H 


34  2  1 

R-)  2K 
sr,  2  L 

:;?  2  M 
:;s  ■_'  N 
3'.i  2  O 
2  P 
2Q 
2  R 
2  S 
2T 

2r 

2  V 
2  W 
2X 
lit  2  Y 


2Z 

S  A 

:;  \; 

:\  (.; 

:i  1) 

:!  K 

:',  F 

:;  ( ; 

:-.  II 


481 

489 

497 

505 

513 

521 

529 

537 

545 

553 

561 

569  i 

577  I 

585 

593 

601 

609 

617 

625 

633 

641 
649 
657 
665 
673 
681 
689 
£97 
705 

713 
721 

729 
737 
745 
753 
761 
769 
777 
785 
793 
801 
809 
817 
825 
833 
841 
849 
857 
865 
873 


897 
905 
913 
921 
929 
937 
945 
953 


Ul  3  L 

62  3  M 

63  3N 

64  30 

65  3  P 

66  3  Q 

67  3R 

68  3  S 

69  3T 

70  3U 


71 

3V 

72 

3W 

73 

3X 

74 

3  V 

7o 

3Z 

76 

4  A 

77 

4  B 

7.S 

4C 

79 

4D 

80 

4  E 

81 

4  F 

.s2 

4(; 

,S3 

4H 

84 

4  1 

85 

4  K 

86 

4  L 

87 

4M 

S8 

4N 

89 

40 

90 

4  P 

91 

4Q 

92 

4  R 

93 

4S 

94 

4  1' 

9.") 

4  U 

96 

4  V 

97 

4W 

98 

4X 

99 

4  Y 

100 

4Z 

101 

5  A 

102  5B 

103  5C 

104  5D 

105  5  E 

106  5  F 

107  5G 

108  5  H 

109  5  I 

110  5  K 

111  5L 

1 12  5  M 

113  5N 

114  50 

115  5  P 

116  5Q 

117  5  R 

118  5S 

119  5T 

120  5U 


5 

13 

17 

25 
29 

37 
41 
49 
53 
61 
65 
73 
77 

85 
89 

97 

lOI 

109 
"3 
121 
125 
133 
137 

145 
149 

157 
161 

169 
173 
181 
185 

193 
197 

805 

209 
217 

221 
229 
233 
241 
245 
253 

257 
265 
269 
377 
281 
389 
293 
301 
305 


9 
9* 

10 
10^^ 

11 
11* 

12 

12* 

13 

13* 

14 

14* 

15 

15* 

16 

16* 

17 

17* 

18 

18* 

19 

19* 

20 

•3V> 

21 

21* 

22 

22* 

23 

23* 

24 

24* 

25 

25* 

26 


A 

A  2 

B 

B2 

C 

C2 

D 

D2 

E 

E2 

F 

F2 

G 

G2 

H 

H2 

I 

12 

K 

K2 

L 

L2 

M 

M2 

N 

N2 

O 

02 

P 

P2 

Q 
Q2 

R 

R2 
S 

S2 
T 

T2 
U 

U2 
V 

V2 
W 
W2 
X 

X2 
Y 

Y2 
Z 

Z2 
2  A 


313 

317 
325 
329 
337 
341 
349 
353 
361 
365 
373 
377 
385 
389 

397 
401 

409 
413 
421 
425 

433 
437 
445 
449 

457 
461 

469 
473 
481 
485 
493 
497 
505 
509 
517 
521 

529 
533 
541 
545 
553 
557 
565 
569 
577 
581 
589 
593 
601 
605 
613 
617 


27  2  B 
27*  2  B  2 

28  2  C 
28*  2  C  2 

29  2D 
29*  2  D  2 

30  2  E 
30*   2  E  2 

31  2  F 
31*   2  F  2 

2G 
:G2 
H 


32 

32* 

33 

33* 

34 

;i4* 
35 

35* 

36 

36* 


H2 
I 

1  2 
K 

K2 
L 

L2 
M 
M2 
N 

N2 
O 

02 
P 

P2 
Q 

U2 
R 

R2 
S 

S  2 
T 

T  2 
U 

U2 
V 

\'  2 
W 
2  W  2 
2X 
48*   2X2 


38 

38* 

39 

39* 

40 

40* 

41 

41* 

42 

42* 

43 

43* 

44 

44* 

45 

45* 

46 

46* 

47 

47* 

48 


49 

49* 

50 

50* 

51 

51* 

52 


2^■ 

2  Y2 
2Z 

2  Z  2 

3  A 

3  A2 
3B 


52*  3  B  2 


OF  SIGNA  TURES. 


217 


625 

629 

53 
53* 

3C 
3C2 

637 

641 

54 

54* 

3D 

3D2 

649 

653 

55 
55* 

8E 
3E2 

661 
665 

56 
56* 

3F 
3  F2 

673 
677 

57 
57* 

3G 
3G2 

685 
689 

58 
58* 

3H 
3H2 

697 

701 

59 

59 « 

31 
312 

709 
713 

60 

CO* 

3K 
3K2 

721 

725 

CI 
61* 

3L 
3L2 

733 
737 

62 
62* 

3M 
3M2 

745 
749 

63 

63'^ 

3N 
3N2 

761 

64 
64* 

30 
302 

769 
773 

65 
65* 

3P 
3  P2 

781 
785 

66 

66* 

3Q2 

793 
797 

67 
67* 

3R 
3R2 

805 
809 

68 
68* 

3S 
3S2 

f'7 

821 

69 
69  i= 

3T 
3T2 

829 
833 

70 
70* 

3U 
3U2 

841 
845 

71 
71* 

3V 
3  V2 

853 
857 

72 

72* 

3  W 
3W2 

865 
869 

73 

73* 

3X 
3X2 

877 
881 

74 
74* 

3  Y 
3  Y2 

889 
893 

75 
75* 

3Z 
3Z2 

901 
905 

76* 

4  A 
4  A2 

913 
917 

77 
771: 

4B 
4B2 

925 
929 

78 
78* 

4C 
4C2 

LSmo 

24zno. 

X 

1 

A 

I 

1     A 

433 

19    T 

17 

2 

B     ! 

9 

1* 

441 

19* 

33 

3 

C 

17 

.    .  A2 

449 

.    .T2 

81 
97 
113 

4 
5 
6 

7 

D 
E 

25 

2    B 

457 

20    U 

33 

2* 

465 

20* 

G    ' 

41 

.    .  B2 

473 

.   .U2 

8 

H    i 

49 

3    C 

481 

21    V 

129 

9 

I 

57 

3* 

489 

21* 

145 

10 

K 

65 

.    .  C2 

497 

.    .  V2 

161 

11 

L 

73 

4     D 

505 

22    W 

177 

12 

M 

81 

4* 

513 

22* 

193 

13 

N 

89 

.   .D2 

521 

.  .  wa 

209 
225 
241 
257 

14 

15 
16 
17 

0 
P 

I 

97 
105 
"3 

5     E 

5* 

.    .  E2 

529 
537 
545 

23    X 

23* 
.   .X2 

273 

18 

S     1 

121 

6     F 

553 

24    Y 

289 

19 

T 

129 

6* 

561 

24* 

30s 

20 

U 

137 

.    .  F2 

569 

.   .  Y  2 

321 

21 

V 

145 

7    G 

577 

25     Z 

337 

22 

w 

153 

7* 

585 

25* 

353 

23 

X 

161 

.   .G2 

593 

.    .  Z2 

369 
385 
401 

417 

24 

26 
27 

Y 

z 

2A 
2B 

169 
177 
185 

8    H 

8!^ 

.   .  H2 

601 
609 
617 

26    2  A 
26* 
.   .  2  A  2 

433 

28 

2C 

193 

9    I 

625 

27    2  B 

449 

29 

2D 

301 

9^= 

633 

27* 

465 

30 

2E 

209 

.   .  12 

641 

".    .  2  B  2 

481 

31 

2F 

217 

10    K 

649 

28    2  C 

497 

32 

2G 

225 

10* 

657 

28* 

513 

33 

2H 

233 

.   .  K2 

665 

.   .2  C2 

529 
577 

34 
35 
36 
37 

21 
2K 
2L 
2M 

241 
249 
257 

11     L 
11* 
.   .  L2 

673 
681 
689 

29    2D 
29* 
.   .2D2 

593 

38 

2N 

265 

12    M 

697 

30    2  E 

609 

39 

20 

273 

12'^ 

705 

30* 

625 

40 

2P 

281 

.   .  ]M2 

713 

.    .2E2 

641 

41 

2Q 

289 

13    N 

721 

31    2  F 

657 

42 

2R 

297 

13  i= 

729 

31* 

673 

43 

2S 

!  305 

.    .  N2 

737 

.   .2F2 

689 
705 
721 
737 

44 
45 
46 
47 

2T 
2U 
2V 

2W   1 

313 
:  321 
j  329 

14    0 
14:= 
.   .  02 

745 
753 
761 

32    2  G 
32* 
.   .2G2 

753 

48 

2X    i 

1  337 

15     P 

769 

33    2  H 

769 

49 

2  Y 

345 

15* 

777 

33* 

785 

50 

2Z 

353 

.   .  P2 

785 

.    .2H2 

801 

51 

3A 

361 

16    Q 

793 

34    2  1 

f'7 

52 

3B 

369 

16* 

801 

34* 

833 

53 

3C 

377 

.   .Q2 

809 

.    .212 

849 
865 

54 
55 

3D 
3E 

385 

17     R 

817 

35    2K 

881 

56 

3F 

393 

17* 

825 

35* 

897 

57 

3G 

401 

.   .  R2 

833 

.   .2K2 

913 

58 

3H 

'  409 

IS    S 

841 

36    2L 

929 

59 

31 

417 

IS* 

849 

36* 

945 

60 

3K 

425 

.   .  S2 

857 

.   .2  L2 

THE   FOREMAN   OR   OVERSEER. 


GENERAL  DUTIES. 


V^l; 


IGILANT  and  conscientious  over- 
^ht  is  line  price  of  profit  and  success. 
An  overseer  or  foreman  of  a  printing-office 
should  be  of  more  tiian  ordinary  capacity, 
and  able  to  keep  his  temper  in  firm  control. 
His  conduct  should  be  guided  by  juirtice 
and  equity  in  regard  to  the  interests  of 
the  employer  and  the  employed.  A  strict 
impartiality  should  be  observed  in  his 
treatment  of  the  workmen,  and  no  favour- 
itism should  be  dis])layed.  He  should 
make  himself  acquainted  with  the  capa- 
city of  the  men,  and  apportion  work  among 
them  accordingly.  Some  men  are  value- 
less except  for  plain,  straightforward  com- 
position; others,  distinguished  for  taste 
and  skill,  delight  in  intricate  work  or  mat- 
ter rec}uiring  ingenuity  and  delicacy,  such 
as  tables,  music,  and  algebra.  Put  one  of  the  first  kind  on 
this  sort  of  composition,  and  he  will  botch  it,  and  earn  small 
wages ;  while  a  workman  of  the  latter  class  will  become  restive 
and  dissatisfied  with  plain,  solid  matter.  While  dealing  justly 
with  the  men  under  his  charge,  the  foreman  should  see  to  it 
that  the  employer  suffers  no  detriment  from  negligent  or  dis- 
honest practices  of  unconscientious  workmen,  whether  from 
careless  correcting,  allowing  dropped  types  to  lie  upon  the 

2l8 


GENERAL  DUTIES. 


219 


floor,  or  overcharging,  or  other  methods  well  known  in  a  print- 
ing-office. He  should  be  the  first  and  the  last  in  attendance,  in 
order  to  satisfy  himself  that  every  person  does  his  duty  in 
coming  and  leaving  at  the  proper  time. 

The  office  having  been  thoroughly  swept  at  an  early  hour, 
and  the  type  found  in  any  alley  having  been  placed  in  the 
stick  of  the  compositor  occupying  it,  the  foreman  should  pass 
around  the  room  and  see  that  it  is  immediately  distributed, 


LARGE  SORT-CASE    CABINET,  FOR  SORTS,  QUADS,  ETC. 

instead  of  being  thrown  on  the  window-frame  or  table.  The 
type  found  in  the  body  of  the  rooms  should  be  sorted  out  and 
distributed  at  once,  and  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate.  No  pi 
should  be  permitted  to  remain  over  till  the  next  day.  This  is 
an  essential  point  to  secure  a  tidy  and  well-regulated  office. 

He  should  see  to  it  that  the  proof-roller  and  press  are  in 
good  condition,  and  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  wetted  proof- 
paper  is  on  hand.     A  badly-printed  proof  should   never  be 

19* 


THE  FOREMAN. 


JRT  -CA^E    CABINET. 


allowed  to  go  to 
the  proof-reader 
or  to  the  author, 
as  neither  can 
properly  read  a 
blurred  or  im- 
perfect proof. 
An  author  will 
feel  kindly  to- 
ward an  office 
that  furnishes 
him  with  hand- 
some impres- 
sions of  his  mat- 
ter. 

The  foreman 
should  keep 
himself  fully  in- 
formed as  to  the  amount  and  the  condition  of  the  materials  in 
the  office,  not  only  in  gross,  but  in  detail,  including  every 

style  of  type, 
every  variety  of 
accents  and  pe- 
culiar  sorts, 
leads,  chases, 
furniture,  rules, 
borders,  corner- 
pieces,  &c.  In 
this  he  will  be 
greatly  aided  by 
insisting  on  the 
observance  of 
the  good  old 
rule,  A  place  for 
every  thiii^,  and 
every  thhig  in 
its  place  when 
not   in   use,   as 

CABINET  FOR  SPACES.  QUADS,  ETC.  ^^^^jj  ^^  ^^  j^^^p. 

ing  a  meni()r;ui(Uuii-bo()k   in   wiiich   every  thing  should   be 
entered  under  its  proper  head  fur  facility  of  reference. 


GENERAL  DUTIES. 


COMBINATION  CABINET,   FOR  SORTS  AND  QUADS. 


If  the  office  be 
well  provided,  it 
will  contain  one  or 
more  of  the  cabinets 
for  sorts,  such  as 
are  shown  in  these 
pages.  Strict  atten- 
tion should  be  given 
to  keeping  them  in 
perfect  order,  and 
in  preventing  them 
from  becoming  re- 
ceptacles for  pi. 

As  a  matter  of 
course,  he  should 
watch  the  progress 
of  every  job  and 
book,  and  make 
sure  that  they  shall  be  completed  within  the  time  contracted 
for.  He  should  never  allow  a  compositor  to  have  a  large  take 
of  copy:  small  takes 


facilitate  expedi- 
tion, and  really  tend 
to  the  profit  of  the 
workmen  by  bring- 
ing an  earlier  return 
of  letter.  He  should 
see  to  it  that  every 
man  has  his  copy 
closed  in  proper 
time,  so  as  not  to 
detain  the  make-up, 
and  that  he  passes 
the  make-up  with- 
out unnecessary  de- 
lay. As  soon  as  a 
form  or  sheet  is 
made  up,  he  should 
order  it  to  be  im- 
posed and  a  proof  pulled,  which,  with  the  copy  properly 
arranged,  is  to  be  at  once  handed  to  the  proof-reader.     Nor 


QUAD    CABINET. 


THE  FOREMAN. 


should  he  allow  of  any  unnecessary  delay  on  the  part  of  the 
reader,  nor  on  the  part  of  the  compositors  in  correcting  the 
proof  when  read.  When  proofs  are  required  by  an  author,  the 
foreman  must  forward  them  promptly  to  him,  and  request 
him  to  return  them  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  If  the 
proof  is  not  to  be  sent  out,  he  should  have  the  second  reading 
quickly  performed,  and  the  forms  prepared  for  the  foundry  or 
the  press. 

Systematic  attention  to  the  above  points  will  tend  to  the 
comfort  of  the  overseer,  to  the  advantage  of  the  workmen,  and 
to  the  profit  and  satisfaction  of  the  proprietor  of  the  establish- 
ment. 

The  foreman  will  find  a  memorandum  Press-Book  very 
useful,  in  which  to  make  entries  of  the  amount  of  tlie  paper 
given  out  by  the  warehouseman  for  the  various  works,  the 
number  printed,  &c.,  as  well  as  the  names  of  the  pressmen 
when  the  work  is  done  on  hand-presses. 


WHEN 
GrVEN   OUT 
TO   WET. 

NiMES   OF   WORKS. 

NO. 

TURKS. 

DATE 

WHES   LAID 

OS. 

NAMES   OF 
PRESSMEN. 

1878. 

May    8 
"     10 
"     12 
"      IS 

Specific  Heat  Tables 

The  Great  Exhibition 

The  American  Printer    .... 
Masterpieces  of  European  Art. 

1000 
5000 
1000 
3000 

II 

18 

20 

2 

1878. 

May  10 
"      12 
"      13 
"      17 

Graham. 
Landsdown. 
Windisch. 
Smith. 

If  not  done  by  the  proof-reader,  the  foreman  should  exa- 
mine the  press  revise;  in  doing  which,  he  will  be  careful  not 
only  to  ascertain  whether  all  the  corrections  marked  in  the 
proof  are  made,  but  also  to  look  carefully  over  the  sides,  head, 
and  bottom  of  each  page.  It  frequently  happens  that  the 
folios  drop  out  of  the  form  in  lifting  it  oif  tlis  imposing-stone; 
and  in  leaded  matter,  letters  at  the  beginning  and  ends  of  lines 
sometimes  fall  out  of  place.  Before  the  revise  is  given  to  the 
compositor,  the  name  of  the  pressman  who  is  to  work  off  the 
form  should  be  entered  in  the  Press-Book.  With  foul  com^ 
positors,  he  should  require  a  second  revise,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain if  ail  the  corrections  have  been  made  which  were  marked 
in  the  first.  He  should  (where  there  is  not  a  pressman  engaged 
e.xpressly  for  the  purpose,  as  is  the  case  in  houses  employing 


CASTIXG   OFF  COPY.  223 

numerous  machine-presses)  go  frequently  to  the  different 
presses,  and  examine  the  work,  point  out  defects,  if  any,  and 
glance  again  over  the  heads,  sides,  and  bottoms  of  the  pages, 
to  see  if  any  thing  has  been  drawn  out  by  the  rollers,  which 
may  occur  from  bad  justification  of  the  lines,  and  careless  and 
improper  locking  up  of  the  form. 

An  active  and  conscientious  foreman  will  not  be  content 
with  merely  managing  the  concerns  of  the  composing  room : 
he  will  also  see  that  the  business  of  the  warehouse  is  attended 
to  with  regularity  and  accuracy,  and  that  the  warehouseman, 
errand-boys,  and  apprentices  do  their  duty. 

CASTING  OFF  COPY. 

TO  cast  off  manuscript  Vith  accuracy  and  precision  is  a 
task  which  requires  great  attention  and  mature  delibera- 
tion. The  trouble  and  difficulty  are  much  increased  when  the 
copy  is  not  only  irregularly  written,  (which  is  generally  the 
case,)  but  also  abounds  with  interlineations,  erasures,  and 
variations  in  the  size  of  paper.  At  times,  so  numerous  are  the 
alterations  and  additions  as  to  baffle  the  skill  and  judgment 
of  the  most  experienced  calculators  of  copy.  Such  an  imper- 
fect and  slovenly  mode  of  sending  works  to  the  press  cannot 
be  too  strongly  censured. 

The  first  step  necessary  is  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  copy,  noticing  whether  it  has  been  written  even  or  has 
many  interlineations,  &c.,  and  observing  also  the  number  of 
break-lines,  and  whether  the  work  be  divided  into  chapters 
and  sub-heads,  in  order  that  allowance  may  be  made  for  them 
in  the  calculation.  These  observations  may  be  noted  on  a 
separate  piece  of  paper,  to  assist  the  memory  and  save  the 
trouble  of  re-examining  the  manuscript. 

This  preparation  being  made,  we  ascertain  the  number  of 
words  contained  in  the  line  by  counting  several  separate  lines 
in  various  parts  of  the  copy,  so  that  the  one  we  adopt  may  be 
a  fair  average.  We  then  take  the  number  of  lines  in  a  page, 
and  multiply  by  the  number  of  words  found  in  the  average 
line:  the  result  we  then  multiply  by  the  quantity  of  folios  the 
manuscript  copy  may  contain,  and  thus  we  get  the  amount 
of  words  contained  in  the  work  with  a  tolerable  degree  of 
accuracy.     The   necessary   allowances  should   be   made   for 


224  THE  FOREMAN. 


break-lines,  chapters,  insertions,  &c.,  according  to  thie  obser- 
vations previously  made  on  the  memorandum. 

If  information  has  been  furnished  as  to  the  size  of  letter  the 
work  is  to  be  done  in  and  the  width  of  the  page,  we  make  our 
measure  accordingly,  and,  by  composing  a  few  lines  of  the 
manuscript  copy,  we  ascertain  what  number  of  words  will 
come  into  each  printed  line :  we  then  take  the  length  of  our 
page  in  lines,  and  multiply  the  one  by  the  other,  thus  getting 
the  number  of  words  in  the  printed  page.  We  divide  the  whole 
number  of  words  in  the  manuscript  by  the  number  contained 
in  the  printed  page :  the  quotient  gives  the  number  of  pages 
the  manuscript  will  make.  If  too  many,  the  page  must  be 
enlarged;  if  too  few,  the  page  must  be  diminished  in  width 
and  length.  For  example : — We  take  the  number  of  words  in  a 
line  of  manuscript  at  20,  the  lines  in  a  page  at  50;  we  multiply 
50  by  20,  which  will  produce  1000  words  in  a  page;  we  then 
multiply  1000  by  422,  the  number  of  folios  in  the  manuscript, 
and  we  find  that  it  contains  422,000  words.  The  work  being 
printed  in  Pica  octavo,  20  ems  measure,  and  each  line  contain- 
ing 10  words,  each  page  40  lines,  the  case  will  stand  thus: — 


MANUSCRIPT. 


422000  words  in  MS. 


40 
10 

400)422000  words  in  MS. 

1055  pages. 

Divide 

16)1055(65  sheets, 
J  5  pages. 


Another  method  for  casting  off  copy  is  tlie  following,  as  laid 
down  by  a  predecessor: — 

"After  having  made  the  measure  for  the  work,  we  set  a 
line  of  the  letter  that  is  designed  for  it,  and  take  notice  how 
much  copy  will  come  into  the  line  in  the  stick, — whether  less 
or  more  than  a  line  of  manuscript ;  and,  as  it  is  seldom  that 
neither  one  nor  the  other  happens,  we  make  a  mark  in  the 
copy  where  the  line  in  the  stick  ends,  and  number  the  words 
that  it  contains.  But.  as  this  is  not  the  safest  way  for  casting 
off  close,  we  count  not  only  the  syllables,  but  even  the  letters, 


CASTING  OFF  COPY.  225 

that  are  in  a  line  in  the  stick,  of  which  we  make  a  memo- 
randum, and  proceed  to  set  off  a  second,  third,  or  fourth  line, 
till  a  line  of  copy  falls  even  with  a  line  in  the  stick;  and,  as 
we  did  to  the  first  line  in  the  stick,  so  we  do  to  the  other, 
marking  on  the  manuscript  the  end  of  each  line  in  the  stick, 
and  telling  the  letters  in  each,  to  see  how  they  balance  against 
each  other.  This  being  carefully  done,  we  begin  counting  off, 
each  time,  as  many  lines  of  copy  as  we  know  will  make  even 
lines  in  the  stick.  For  example,  if  2  lines  of  copy  make  3  lines 
in  print,  then  4  make  6,  6  make  9,  8  make  12,  and  so  on,  call- 
ing every  two  lines  of  copy  three  in  print.  In  like  manner  we 
say,  if  4  lines  make  5,  then  8  make  10,  and  so  on,  comparing 
every  four  lines  of  copy  to  five  lines  in  print.  And  in  this 
manner  we  carry  our  calculation  on  as  far  as  we  have  occasion, 
either  for  pages,  forms,  or  sheets. 

The  foregoing  calculations  are  intended  to  serve  where  a 
line  of  print  takes  in  less  than  a  line  of  copy ;  and,  therefore, 
where  a  fine  of  print  takes  in  more  than  a  line  of  copy,  the 
problem  is  reversed,  and,  instead  of  saying,  if  2  lines  make  3, 
we  say,  in  this  case,  if  3  lines  of  copy  make  2  lines  in  print, 
then  6  lines  make  4,  9  make  6,  12  make  8,  and  so  on,  counting 
three  lines  of  copy  to  make  two  lines  in  print.  In  this  manner 
we  may  carry  our  calculation  to  what  number  of  pages,  forms, 
or  sheets  we  will,  remembering  always  to  count  off'  as  many 
lines  of  copy  at  once  as  we  have  found  they  will  make  even 
lines  in  the  stick.  Thus,  for  example,  if  5  lines  make  7,  the 
progression  of  5  is  10,  15,  20,  &c.,  and  the  j^rogression  of  7  will 
be  14,  21,  28,  &c. 

In  counting  off  copy,  we  take  notice  of  the  breaks;  and 
where  we  judge  that  one  will  drive  out,  we  intimate  it  by  a 
mark  of  this  shape  [ ;  and  again,  where  we  find  that  a  break 
will  get  in,  we  invert  it,  thus,  ].  And  to  render  these  marks 
conspicuous  to  the  compositor,  we  write  them  in  the  margin, 
that  he  may  take  timely  notice,  and  keep  his  matter  accord- 
ingly. We  also  take  care  to  make  proper  allowance  for  heads 
to  chapters,  sections,  paragraphs,  &c. 

In  examining  the  state  of  the  copy,  we  must  observe 
whether  it  has  abbreviations,  that  we  may  guard  against  them 
in  casting  off,  and  allow  for  them  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  respective  words  when  written  out  at  length." 

The  foregoing  will  convey  a  sufficient  idea  as  to  the  best 


226 


THE  FOREMAN. 


mode  of  casting  off  copy;  still,  these  remarks  more  properly 
apply  to  regularly  written  and  thoroughly  revised  copy.  Upon 
this  subject,  Smith  justly  observes, — 

"  But  iiovv  often  one  or  more  of  these  requisites  are  wanting, 
compositors  can  best  tell;  though  very  few  will  imagine  that 
among  men  of  learning  there  should  be  some  who  write  after 
such  a  manner  that  even  those  who  live  by  transcribing  rather 
shun  than  crave  to  be  employed  by  them :  no  wonder,  there- 
fore, if  compositors  express  not  the  best  wishes  to  such  pro- 
moters of  printing.  But  it  is  not  always  the  capacious  genius 
that  ought  to  be  excused  for  writing  in  too  great  a  hurry ;  for 
sometimes  those  of  no  exuberant  brains  affect  uncouth  writing, 
on  purpose  to  strengthen  the  common  notion  that  the  more 
learned  the  man,  the  worse  is  his  (hand)  writing ;  which  shows 
that  writing  well  or  bad  is  but  a  habit  with  those  that  can 
write." 


HURRIED   WORK. 

IT  is  sometimes  necessary  to  print  pamphlets  and  other 
works  of  a  temporary  nature  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours. 
When  a  work  of  this  kind  is  put  in  hand,  the  foreman  selects 
the  requisite  number  of  swift  and  skilful  compositors,  whose 
first  concern  must  be  to  appoint  one  from  among  them  to 
make  up  the  matter,  and  to  do  every  thing  which  would  inter- 
fere with  the  regular  business  of  distributing,  composing,  and 
correcting.  While  they  are  dislril)uting  letter,  the  dicker,  or 
person  appointed  to  manage  the  work,  procures  the  copy,  with 
all  necessary  information  respecting  it,  and  provides  leads, 
rules,  and  every  other  necessary  sort.  He  then  draws  out  the 
following  table: — 


COMPOSITOHS     NAMES. 

POLIOS  OF  copy. 

LINES  COMP08BD. 

MBMORANnUMS. 

Farroe 

I-  5 

184 

Wilson 

6-IO 

168 

Stratz 

11-16 

121 

In  the  first  column  he  writes  the  name  of  each  comi)ositor 
when  he  takes  copy;  and,  in  the  second,  tlie  folio  of  the  co])y, 


HURRIED   WORK. 


227 


that  he  may  be  able  to  ascertain  instantly  in  whose  hands  it 
lies.  In  the  third  column  he  sets  down,  opposite  to  the  work- 
man's name,  the  number  of  lines  composed,  as  fast 
as  the  galleys  are  brought  to  him.  In  the  fourth, 
he  inserts  such  remarks  respecting  the  copy,  &c.  as 
may  be  necessary,  and  also  any  circumstances  that 
may  occur  in  the  companionship. 

When  the  work  is  tinished,  each  man's  share  of 
lines  is  readily  ascertained,  and  all  disputes  are 
avoided.  The  publisher  may  expedite  the  progress 
of  the  work  by  offering  a  copy  of  the  book,  or  some 
other  token,  as  a  premium  to  the  compositor  who 
sets  the  largest  number  of  ems.  The  maker-up  or 
clicker  usually  receives  for  his  compensation  the 
head  and  foot  lines,  and  two  or  three  cents  per 
thousand,  which  is  deducted  from  the  wages  paid  to 
the  compositor.  Sometimes  the  compositors  work 
"in  pocket,"  as  it  is  called,  or  share  evenly  in  the 
proceeds.  This,  however,  is  not  a  satisfactory 
mode,  and  its  tendency  is  to  retard  the  work,  as 
no  man  will  be  anxious  to  do  more  than  his  share. 

When  the  coftipositors  are  ready  for  their  first 
taking  of  copy,  it  should  be  given  to  them  in  pieces 
as  short  as  possible,  the  first  two  beginning  with 
shorter  takes  than  the  others,  to  prevent  delay  in 
the  making  up.  During  the  time  the  first  take  is 
in  hand,  the  clicker  sets  the  half-head,  head-lines, 
white-lines,  and  signature-lines,  together  with  notes 
and  other  extraneous  matter. 

When  the  first  person  brings  his  matter,  the 
clicker  counts  or  measures  off  with  a  type-measure 
the  number  of  lines,  and  inserts  them  in  the  table ; 
he  then  gives  him  another  take  of  copy,  and  pro- 
ceeds with  the  making  up.  The  same  plan  is 
observed  with  the  rest  of  the  compositors.  When 
the  first  sheet  is  made  up,  the  clicker  lays  the  pages 
on  the  stone,  and  informs  the  foreman  of  it,  who 
has  previously  had  chases  and  furniture  prepared  and  the 
clicker  immediately  imposes  the  form. 

The  proofs  should  be  read  at  once  and  given  to  the  clicker 
to  have  them  corrected.     As  soon  as  this  is  done,  he  lays  up 

20 


2  28  THE  FOREMAN. 


the  forms,  and  gives  the  proof  to  the  compositor  whose 
matter  stands  first,  who  should  immediately  correct  it,  then 
forward  it  to  the  next,  and  so  on,  till  the  sheet  be  corrected; 
the  clicker  then  locks  it  up  and  pulls  the  second  proof,  which 
must  be  duly  forwarded,  and  the  type  be  locked  up  finally  for 
press. 

The  work  will  now  proceed  rapidly,  provided  tlie  composi- 
tors stick  close  to  their  work  and  there  be  no  hinderance  with 
respect  to  letter,  «&:c. :  this  depends  on  the  good  management 
of  the  foreman. 

If  the  clicker  find  that  he  cannot  make  up  the  matter  as  fast 
as  it  is  composed,  he  should  call  one  of  the  compositors  to  his 
assistance,  who  must  be  the  person  last  in  copy. 

COMPANIONSHIPS. 

DISPUTES  sometimes  arise  in  a  printing-oftice  upon  trifling 
as  well  as  important  points,  which  should  be  settled  by 
a  reference  to  the  general  custom  and  usage  of  the  trade. 
These  annoying  misunderstandings  take  place  in  companion- 
ships consisting  of  several  compositors;  it  is  therefore  higlily 
desirable  that  the  generally  received  rules  and  regulations  in 
this  regard  should  be  explicitly  laid  down  for  the  comfort  and 
government  of  the  compositor. 

TAKING   COPV. 

When  the  work  to  be  taken  in  hand  is  a  reprint  which  is  to 
be  followed  page  for  page,  a  fixed  number  of  pages  should  be 
given  to  each  compositor  as  he  comes  in  turn  for  copy ;  or,  if 
^  ^   the  work  be  in  manu- 

script, an  equal  aver- 
age amount  should  be 
allowed  as  a  take  for 
each  compositor.  None 
of  the  hands  should 
have  access  to  the  copy, 
but  the  foreman  should 
deal  it  out  as  wanted 


STEEL  COMPOSING  RULE. 


with  perfect  impartiality,  fat  or  lean  as  it  may  happen  to  run. 
Otherwise,  a  compositor  who  has  an  acquaintance  with  the 


COMPANIONSHIPS.  229 

copy  may  be  tempted  to  loiter  if  the  next  take  to  be  given 
out  be  lean,  or,  if  it  be  fat,  to  apply  for  copy  before  his  work 
in  hand  is  finished.  By  this  course,  the  foreman  will  prevent 
all  such  sorts  of  sharp  practice,  and  secure  harmony  in  the 
companionship.  When  the  foreman  gives  out  copy,  he  should 
plainly  mark  the  name  of  the  compositor  at  the  head  of  the 
first  page  of  the  take  if  the  work  be  a  page-for-page  reprint ; 
if  it  be  manuscript,  or  a  reprint  in  a  different  measure  from 
that  of  the  copy,  he  should  write  the  name  at  the  beginning 
of  the  first  paragraph  of  the  take.  Most  compositors  desire 
to  have  a  large  portion  of  copy,  under  the  erroneous  idea  that 
it  will  be  to  their  advantage  to  make  up  many  pages  at  once. 
Small  takes  insure  a  more  rapid  execution  of  the  work  and 
bring  a  quicker  return  of  letter,  and  so  tend  to  the  profit  of 
the  hands. 

If  one  of  the  companionship  absent  himself,  the  man  next 
in  order  should  close  his  copy,  whether  it  be  good  or  bad, 
unless  the  larger  portion  of  it  be  not  set,  in  which  case  the 
person  who  has  the  last  take  must  go  on  with  it. 


MAKING   UP. 

The  compositor  who  has  the  first  take  on  the  work  proceeds 
without  delay  to  make  it  up  as  soon  as  he  has  completed  it. 
Having  completed  as  many  pages  as  his  matter  will  make,  he 
passes  the  overplus,  if 
less  than  half  a  page, 
with  the  correct  head 
and  folio,  to  the  compo- 
sitor whose  matter  fol- 
lows his,  at  the  same 
time  taking  an  account 
of  the  number  of  lines 
loaned;  if,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  overplus  makes  more  than  half  a  page,  he  borrows  a 
sufficient  numljer  of  lines  to  complete  his  page;  each  com- 
positor keeping  an  account  of  the  number  of  lines  borrowed 
and  loaned.  The  second  compositor,  following  the  same 
course,  passes  the  make-up  to  the  next  in  succession;  each 
man  passing  the  make-up  in  like  manner  without  unneces- 
sary delay. 


STEEL  MAKE-UP  RULE. 


230 


THE  FOREMAN. 


MAKING   UP   OF   LETTER. 

The  number  of  the  companionship,  if  possible,  should  be 
determined  on  at  the  commencement  of  the  work,  to  enable 
all  to  proceed  upon  an  equal  footing.  The  letter  appropriated 
for  the  work  should  be  adequate  to  keep  the  persons  on  it 
fully  employed. 

If  any  part  of  the  matter  for  distribution,  whether  in  chase 
or  in  paper,  be  desirable  on  account  of  the  sorts  it  may  con- 
tain, it  should  be  divided  equally,  or  the  choice  of  it  thrown  for. 

When  a  new  companion  is  put  on  the  work  after  the  re- 
spective shares  of  letter  are  made  up,  and  if  there  be  not  a 
sufficiency  to  carry  on  all  the  companionship  without  making 
up  more,  he  must  bring  on  an  additional  quantity  before  he 
can  be  allowed  to  partake  of  any  part  of  that  which  comes 
from  the  press. 

MAKING   UP   FURNITURE. 

The  companions  in  rotation  should  make  up  the  furniture 
in  turn,  the  one  who  has  the  last  matter  in  the  first  sheet  lead- 
ing off.  Should  an  odd  sheet  be  wanted,  it  will  be  better  to 
throw  for  the  chance  of  making  it  up. 

IMPOSING   AND   DISTRIBUTING   LETTER. 

The  person  to  whose  turn  it  falls  to  impose  must  lay  up  the 
form  for  distribution.  To  prevent  disputes,  it  will  be  well  to 
prepare  a  blank  form,  as  follows,  which  may  be  filled  up  as 
the  work  proceeds : — 


i 

< 

s 

THB  GBEAT  INTERNATIONAI.  EXHIBITION. 

BY  WHOM  IMPOSED. 

•4 

a 
0 

< 

i 

i 
t 

< 
0 

i 

s 
> 
* 

B 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

Clark. 

C 
D 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

2 

2 

McGuigan. 

3 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

Farroe 

^ 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

Wilson. 

F 

COMPANIONSHIPS. 


231 


When  the  form  is  laid  up,  the  letter  should  be  divided 
equally,  and,  if  possible,  each  person  should  distribute  the 
matter  originally  composed  by  him ;  by  this  means,  the  sorts 
which  may  have  made  his  case  uneven  will  return  to  him. 
If  any  man  absent  himself  beyond  a  reasonable  time,  his 
undistributed  matter  should  be  divided  equally  among  his 
companions,  and  when  he  returns  he  may  have  his  share 
of  the  next  division. 


CORRECTING,  ETC. 

The  compositor  whose  matter  is  first  in  the  proof  should  lay 
up  the  forms  on  the  imposing-stone  and  correct  it;  he  then 
hands  the  proof  to  the 
person  who  follows  next. 
The  compositor  who  cor- 
rects the  last  part  of  the 
sheet  locks  up  the  forms. 

The  compositor  who 
has  matter  in  the  first 
and  last  part,  but  not 
the  middle  of  the  sheet, 
only  lays  up  the  forms 
and  corrects  his  matter ; 
the  locking  up  is  left  to 
the  person  who  corrects 
last  in  the  sheet. 

A  compositor  having 
the  first  page  only  of 
the  sheet  is  required  to 
lay  up  one  form ;  also  to 
lock  up  one  form  if  he 
has  but  the  last  page. 

If,  from  carelessness  in  locking  up  the  form,— viz.  the  furni- 
ture binding,  the  quoins  badly  fitted,  &c. — any  letters,  or  even 
a  page,  should  fall  out,  the  person  who  locked  up  the  form 
should  repair  the  damage.  But,  if  the  accident  occur  from 
bad  justification,  or  from  letters  riding  upon  the  ends  of  the 
leads,  the  loss  should  fall  upon  the  person  to  whom  the  matter 
belongs. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  locker-up  to  ascertain  whether  all 
the  pages  are  of  equal  length;  and,  though  a  defect  in  this 

20* 


CHASE   CABINET. 


THE  FORE  MAX. 


respect  is  highly  reprehensible  in  the  maker-up,  (whose  duty  it 
is  to  rectify  it,)  yet,  if  not  previously  discovered  by  the  locker- 
up,  and  an  accident  happen,  he  must  make  good  the  defect. 

The  compositor  who  imposes  a  sheet  must  correct  the 
alterations  in  that  sheet.  He  must  also  rectify  any  defect  in 
the  register  arising  from  want  of  accuracy  in  the  furniture. 

Forms  sometimes  remain  a  considerable  length  of  time 
before  they  are  put  to  press.  In  this  case,  particularly  in  sum- 
mer, the  furniture  is  likely  to  shrink,  and  the  pages  may  fall 
out.  It  is  therefore  the  business  of  the  locker-up  to  attend 
to  it  in  this  respect,  or  he  will  be  subject  to  make  good  any 
accident  which  his  neglect  may  occasion. 

When  forms  which  have  been  worked  off  are  ordered  to  be 
kept  standing,  they  are  considered  under  the  care  of  the  fore- 
man. When  they  are  cleared  away,  it  is  to  be  done  in  equal 
proportions  by  the  companionship.  During  the  time  any 
forms  may  have  remained  under  the  care  of  the  foreman, 
should  there  have  been  any  alteration  as  to  form  or  substance 
which  were  not  made  by  the  original  compositors,  they  are 
not  subject  to  clear  away  those  parts  of  the  form  thus  altered. 
To  prevent  dust  from  settling  in  the  face  of  the  type,  it  is  well 
to  keep  the  forms  in  a  chase  cabinet. 

If  the  pressman  unlock  a  form  on  the  press,  and  any  part 
of  it  fall  out  from  carelessness  in  the  locking  up,  he  is  subject 
to  the  loss  that  may  happen  in  consecjuence. 

The  compositor  who  locks  up  a  sheet  takes  it  to  the  proof- 
press,  and,  after  he  has  pulled  a  proof,  hands  it,  together  with 
the  foul  proof,  to  the  reader,  and  deposits  tlie  form  in  a  place 
appointed  for  that  purpose. 

TRANSPOSITION   OF    P.\GES. 

Each  person  in  the  companionship  must  lay  down  his  pages 
properly  on  tlie  stone  for  imposition.  The  compositor  whose 
lurn  it  is  to  impose  looks  them  over  to  see  if  they  are  riglitly 
placed.  Should  they,  after  this  examination,  lie  improperly, 
and  be  tiius  imposed,  it  will  be  his  business  to  transpose  them  ; 
but,  should  the  folios  be  wrong,  and  the  mistake  arise  from 
this  cause,  it  must  be  rectified  by  the  person  to  whom  the 
matter  belongs.  Pages  without  folios  or  head-lines,  laid  down 
wrongly  for  imposition,  must  be  rectified  by  the  person  who 
has  been  slovenly  enough  to  ado]-)t  this  plan. 


RULES  FOR  A  PRINTING  OFFICE.  233 


RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED 
IN  A  PRINTING-OFFICE. 

COMPOSITORS  are  to  receive  their  cases  from  the  fore- 
man or  his  assistant,  free  from  all  pi  or  improper  sorts, 
with  clean  quadrate  and  space  boxes,  both  Roman  and  Italic, 
which  they  are  to  return  to  him  in  equally  good  condition. 

2.  When  a  compositor  receives  letter,  furniture,  &c.  from 
the  foreman,  he  is  to  return  any  portion  not  used,  in  as  good 
state  as  he  received  it,  the  same  day. 

3.  When  a  case  is  taken  out  of  the  rack,  the  compositor  is  to 
return  it  into  the  proper  place  immediately  after  he  has  done 
with  it. 

4.  No  cases  to  be  placed  over  others,  or  under  the  frames, 
or  on  the  floor. 

5.  Compositors  are  to  impose  their  matter  and  pull  a  proof 
as  soon  as  made  up,  unless  directed  otherwise,  and  to  correct 
the  proof  without  unnecessary  delay. 

6.  The  proof,  when  pulled,  to  be  given  to  the  reader,  the 
copy  in  regular  order  to  accompany  the  first  proof,  and  the 
foul  proof  the  second. 

7.  Compositors  are  not  to  leave  either  type  or  furniture  on 
the  stone.- 

8.  A  compositor  is  not  to  detain  an  imposing-stone  longer 
than  the  nature  of  the  business  may  require. 

9.  Head-lines,  or  other  useful  materials,  on  galleys,  used 
during  the  course  of  a  work,  to  be  cleared  away  as  soon  as  the 
work  is  finished. 

10.  When  a  work  is  done,  the  compositor,  before  beginning 
another  work,  unless  otherwise  directed,  is  to  clear  away  the 
forms,  taking  from  them  the  head-lines,  white-lines,  and  odd 
sorts,  as  well  as  the  leads  and  reglets ;  which,  with  the  furni- 
ture of  each  sheet,  and  the  matter  properly  tied  up  for  paper- 
ing, are  to  be  given  to  the  foreman. 

11.  Types  dropped  on  the  floor  to  be  picked  up  at  once. 
Matter  broken  by  accident  to  be  cleared  away  on  the  same  day. 

12.  The  saw,  saw-block,  bowl,  sponge,  letter-brush,  shears, 
bellows,  &c.,  to  be  returned  to  their  respective  places  as  soon 
as  done  with. 


234 


RULES  FOR  A  PRINTING  OFFICE. 


13.  Letter-boards,  windows,  frames,  &c.,  to  be  kept  free 
from  pi. 

14.  No  person  to  take  sorts  from  the  cases  of  another  with- 
out leave,  nor  hoard  useful  sorts,  not  wanting  or  likely  to  want 
them. 

15.  Compositors  employed  by  the  week  to  work  not  less 
than  ten  hours  per  day. 

16.  Unnecessary  conversation  to  be  avoided. 


GALLEY  CABINET. 


THE   PRESS   AND    ITS   WORKING. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PRESS. 


iiuittniiiitiiiiiiinniin' 

OLD  COMMON   PRESS. 


WHILE  poets  and  orators  have 
expatiated  on  the  glory  and 
power  of  the  press,  rulers  have  ex- 
hausted their  cunning  in  attempts 
to   curb    and    regulate   the  art  of 
which  it  is  the  symbol.     Hedged  in 
by  arbitrary  restrictions,  it  is  not 
wonderful   that  printing  was   long 
carried  on  with  clumsy  implements. 
The    earliest    press    resembled    a 
screw-press,  with  a  contrivance  for 
nmning  the  form  of  types  under  the  point  of  pressure.     After 
the  impression  was  taken,  the  screw  was  relaxed,  and  the  form 
withdrawn  and  the  sheet  removed. 

This  rude  press  continued  in  general  use  till  1620,  when 
WiLLEM  Jansen  Blaeu,  at  first  a  joiner  and  afterward  a 
mathematical  instrument  maker  of  Amsterdam,  contrived  a 
press  in  which  the  bed  or  carriage  was  brought  under  the 
point  of  pressure  by  moving  a  handle  attached  to  a  screw 
hanging  in  a  beam  with  a  spring,  the  spring  causing  the  screw 
to  fly  back  as  soon  as  the  impression  was  given.  This  move- 
ment was  afterward  effected  by  means  of  a  double  strap  or 
belt,  two  ends  of  which  were  attached  to  an  axle,  and  the 
others  to  opposite  ends  of  the  bed.  The  platen  was  so  small 
that  two  pulls  were  necessary  to  print  one  side  of  a  sheet,  and 
each  sheet,  therefore,  required  four  pulls  to  produce  a  com- 
plete impression. 

23.=: 


236 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


Adam  Ramage,  who  came  from  Scotland  to  Philadelphia 
about  1790,  and  who  for  a  long  time  was  the  chief  press-builder 
in  the  United  States,  made  some  improvements  in  the  old 
press,  one  of  which  was  the  substitution  of  an  iron  bed  for  the 
stone  one  before  in  use. 

About  the  year  1800,  Earl  Stanhope  contrived  a  press 
which  obtained  much  notoriety.  It  was  constructed  of  iron, 
and  of  a  size  sufficient  to  print  the  whole  surface  of  a  sheet, 
and  such  a  combined  action  of  levers  was  applied  to  the  screw 
as  to  make  the  pull  a  great  deal  less  laborious  to  the  pressman. 


^ 


COLUMBIAN    PRESS. 


The  Stanhope  press,  however,  was  soon  surpassed  by  the 
Columbian  press,  invented  by  George  Clymer,  of  Philadel- 
phia. Mr.  Clymer,  as  early  as  1797,  endeavoured  to  improve 
the  common  wooden  press.  His  next  efforts  were  directed  to 
the  production  of  an  iron  press,  till  finally  eminent  success  was 
the  result  of  liis  labours.  In  beauty,  durability,  and  power, 
as  well  as  facility  of  pull,  the  Columbian  press  stands  perhaps 
unsurpassed.  The  power  in  this  press  is  procured  l)y  a  long 
bar  or  handle  acting  upon  a  combination  of  exceedingly  pow- 
erful levers  above  the  platen;  the  return  of  the  handle  or 
levers  being  effected  by  means  of  counterpoises  or  weights. 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS.  237 

The  powerful  command  which  the  leverage  enables  the  work- 
man to  exercise  is  favourable  to  delicacy  and  exactness  of 
printing, — his  arm  feeling,  as  it  were,  through  the  series  of 
levers  to  the  very  face  of  the  types.  The  inventor  removed 
to  England  in  1817,  and  introduced  the  press  there,  where  it 
has  long  been  held  in  high  estimation. 

In  the  United  States,  presses  of  simpler  construction  have 
displaced  the  imposing  Columbian  press, — the  first  of  which 
was  in\ented  by  Peter  Smith,  of  New  York,  and  the  latest 


WASHINGTON    PRESS. 


is  Samuel  Rust's  Washington  press,  which  has  secured 
general  approbation  and  adoption,  as  being  more  simple  and 
cheaper,  if  not  more  effective,  than  the  Columbian  press. 
Hand-presses  are  now  restricted  to  country  papers  of  small 
circulation,  and  to  book-offices  devoted  to  extra  fine  printing. 
The  bed-and-platen  power-press  invented  by  Isaac  Ad.\ms, 
of  Boston,  was  for  a  considerable  time  the  only  machine- 
press  capable  of  producing  fine  work  and  exact  register. 
It  will  give  from  six  to  eight  thousand  impressions  per  day. 
As  the  platen  rolls  off"  and  leaves  the  bed  entirely  exposed, 
forms  can  be  made  ready  with  great  facility.     The  sheets  are 


238 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


taken  from  the  feed-board  by  fingers,  and,  after  being  printed, 
are  laid  in  a  pile  bj-  a  self-acting  sheet-ilyer. 

The  Cylinder 
press,  which  may 
be  run  at  a  much 
higher  rate  of  speed 
than  the  bed-and- 
platen  machine, 
was  of  earlier  in- 
vention. Frede- 
rick KoNiG,  a  Sax- 
on, early  in  the 
present  century 
turned  his  atten- 
tion to  cylinder 
printing,  and  was 
so  successful  that 
on  November  28, 
1814,  the  London 
Times  announced 
the  fact  that  the 
number  issued  on 
that  day  had  been 
printed  by  ma- 
chinery propelled 
by  steam.  The  ear- 
liest suggestion  of 
a  cylinder  press  is 
due,  however,  to 
William  Nicholson, 
of  England,  who, 
in  1790  took  out 
a  patent  for  such 
a  machine,  but  it 
was  never  perfect- 
ed. According  to 
Mr.  Isaiah  Thomas, 
a    Dr.  Kinsley,  of 

Connecticut,  afterward  produced  a  press  varying  somewhat 
from  Nicholson's. 

In  1S18,  Applegath  and  Cowper  made  important  improve- 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS.  239 

merits  in  Konig's  press,  which  greatly  enlarged  its  field  of 
usefulness.  This  machine,  with  various  modifications  and 
improvements,  is  in  general  use  in  Europe  and  America,  for 
newspapers  of  moderate  circulation,  and  even  for  fine  job  and 
book  work,  as  entirely  accurate  register  can  now  be  secured 
on  the  new  cylinder  presses  of  the  best  makers,  such  as  Hoe 
&  Co.,'i>  Cottrell  &  Babcock,  Campbell,  and  others.  The  stop 
cylinder  press  (the  latest  improvement)  is  particularly  well 
adapted  for  fine  printing. 

W  We  are  indebted  to  a  friend  for  the  following  sketch  of  the  origin,  progress,  and 
present  condition  of  the  world-famous  house  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co. 

Robert  Hoe,  the  founder  of  the  present  house  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.  of  New  York, 
was  born  at  Hose,  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1784.  His  father  was  a  well-to- 
do  farmer  in  that  pleasant,  sequestered  district ;  but,  as  the  family  was  large, 
Robert  was  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter  in  a  neighbouring  town.  His  attention 
was  early  attracted  and  his  mind  impressed  by  the  prosperity  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States ;  and,  being  a  republican'  at  heart,  and  conscious  that  the  institu- 
tions of  his  own  country  presented  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  working  classes,  he  purchased  his  indentures  from  his  employer, 
and  in  1803  emigrated  to  New  York. 

On  his  arrival  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Grant  Thorburn,  who,  becoming 
interested  in  him,  received  him  into  his  family,  and  with  great  kindness  nursed 
him  with  his  own  hands  through  an  attack  of  the  yellow  fever,  which  was  then 
raging  in  the  city.  He  soon  established  himself  in  his  trade,  and,  by  his  in- 
dustry, integrity,  and  enterprise,  became  advantageously  known  to  the  public. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  he  married  the  daughter  of  INIatthew  Smith,  of  Westchester 
Co.,  New  York,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons  and  six  daughters.  For  a  time  he 
was  in  partnership  with  his  brother-in-law,  Matthew  Smith,  Jr.,  a  carpenter  and 
printers'  joiner,  who,  on  their  separation,  associated  with  himself  his  brother, 
Peter  Smith,  who  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  the  inventor  of  the  well- 
known  hand-press  bearing  his  name. 

On  the  decease  of  these  two  brothers,  Robert  Hoe,  in  1823,  succeeded  to  the 
business,  which  was  then  in  its  infancy,  giving  employment  to  only  a  handful  of 
men,  and  being  conducted  in  the  middle  of  the  block  bounded  by  Maiden  Lane, 
Pine,  William,  and  Pearl  Streets,  in  some  old  buildings  to  which  access  was  gained 
by  an  alley  running  from  Maiden  Lane  to  Pine  Street.  'Here  the  business,  under 
the  style  of  Robert  Hoe  &  Co.,  grew  rapidly;  but  the  extension  of  Cedar  Street 
made  necessary  its  removal  to  the  present  location  in  Gold  Street.  About  this 
time,  the  flat-bed  cylinder  press,  for  newspaper  printing,  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land; and  Mr.  Hoe  sent  an  intelligent  mechanic  there  to  examine  it,  and  it  was 
soon  brought  into  use  here,  with  valuable  improvements.  In  1832,  Mr.  Hoe's 
failing  health  obliged  him  to  relinquish  the  business  to  his  eldest  son,  Richard  M. 
Hoe,  and  Matthew  Smith,  son  of  his  first  partner.  In  the  following  year  he  died. 
Shortly  after  his  decease,  the  firm  erected  extensive  buildings  in  Broome  Street,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  where  the  greater  part  of  their  manufacturing  has 
since  been  carried  on.  They  also  commenced  making  cast-steel  saws,  which  had 
previously  been  exclusively  imported  from  England;  and  this  branch  has  steadily 
increased  in  importance. 

Matthew  Smith,  a  man  of  uncommon  ability  and  business  talents,  died  in  1842. 
The  business  was   then  continued   by  Richard  M.  Hoe,  with  his   two   brothers, 

21 


240 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


The  invention  of  steam  printing  presses  rendered  books 
and  periodicals  so  cheap  that  the  progress  of  knowledge  was 
amazingly  accelerated;  and  soon  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder 
press  pro\ed  unequal  to  the  work  of  printing  the  enormous 


HOE'S   TYPE-REVOLVING    MACHINE— SIDE   VIEW. 


editions  of  some  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  the  world; 
and  the  first  successful  invention  to  meet  the  exigency  was 

Robert  Hoe  and  Peter  Smith  Hoe,— the  eldest,  as  before,  taking  charge  of  the 
mechanical  department,  in  which  his  industry  and  fertility  of  invention  are  attested 
by  the  number  and  value  of  his  patents.  In  1837,  he  patented  here  and  in  England 
his  method  of  grinding  circular  saws,  by  which  the  thickness  of  any  part  of  a  saw 
can  be  regulated  with  accuracy.  In  1846,  he  brought  out  the  so-called  "  Lightning 
Press,"  or  Type-Revolving  Printing  Machine,  described  in  the  text,— the  greatest 
innovation  on  the  routine  of  the  printing  craft  since  the  days  of  Gutenberg,  This 
press  entirely  superseded  all  others  for  fast  printing,  and  was  introduced  into  the 
principal  offices,  not  only  in  this  country,  but  in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
Australia. 

In  1858,  the  firm  purchased  of  Isaac  Adams,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  his 
entire  patent-rights,  together  with  his  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  his 
bed-and-platen  book  printing  presses,  and  various  machines  for  binders'  use,  which 
they  continue  to  conduct  there,  though  with  increased  facilities  and  many  improve- 
ments. Their  works  in  different  places  now  cover  thirty-five  city  lots,  or  about  two 
acres,  and  give  employment  to  nearly  six  hundred  hands.  The  office  and  ware- 
rooms  of  the  house  in  England  are  at  13  Salisbury  Square,  Fleet  Street,  London, 
one  of  the  partners,  being  a  resident  in  that  city,  attending  to  the  business  there. 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS.  241 

made  by  Col.  Richard  M.  Hoe,  of  New  York,  in  the  Type- 
Revolving  Printing  Machine,  of  which  we  give  an  engrav- 
ing. It  is,  as  its  name  indicates,  on  the  rotary  principle ;  that 
is,  the  form  of  type  is  placed  on  the  surface  of  a  horizontal 
revolving  cylinder  of  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter. 
The  form  occupies  a  segment  of  only  about  one-fourth  of  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  remainder  is  used  as  an  ink- 
distributing  surface.  Around  this  main  cylinder,  and  parallel 
with  it,  are  placed  smaller  impression  cylinders,  varying  in 
number  from  four  to  ten,  according  to  the  size  of  the  machine. 
The  large  cylinder  being  put  in  motion,  the  form  of  types  is 
carried  successively  to  all  the  impression  cylinders,  at  each 
of  which  a  sheet  receives  the  impression  of  the  types  as  the 
form  passes.  Thus,  as  many  sheets  are  printed  at  each  revo- 
lution of  the  main  cylinder  as  there  are  impression  cylinders 
around  it.  One  person  is  required  at  each  impression  cylin- 
der to  supply  the  sheets  of  paper,  which  are  taken  at  the 
proper  moment  by  fingers  or  grippers,  and  after  being  printed 
are  carried  out  by  tapes  and  laid  in  heaps  by  means  of  self- 
acting  flyers,  thereby  dispensing  with  the  hands  required  in 
ordinary  machines  to  receive  and  pile  the  sheets.  The  grip- 
pers hold  the  sheet  securely,  so  that  the  thinnest  newspaper 
may  be  printed  without  waste. 

The  ink  is  contained  in  a  fountain  placed  beneath  the  main 
cylinder,  and  is  conveyed  by  means  of  distributing  rollers  to 
the  distributing  surface  on  the  main  cylinder.  This  surface 
being  lower,  or  less  in  diameter,  than  the  form  of  types,  passes 
by  the  impression  cylinder  without  touching.  For  each  im- 
pression there  are  two  inking  rollers,  which  receive  their 
supply  of  ink  from  the  distributing  surface  of  the  main  cylin- 
der: they  rise  and  ink  the  form  as  it  passes  under  them,  after 
which  they  again  fall  to  the  distributing  surface. 

This  press  is  capable  of  printing  either  from  type  or  from 
stereotype  plates  bent  to  fit  the  curve  of  the  cylinder.  When 
type  is  used,  each  page  of  the  paper  is  locked  up  on  a  detached 
segment  of  the  large  cylinder,  which  constitutes  its  bed  and 
chase.  The  column-rules  run  parallel  with  the  shaft  of  the 
cylinder,  and  are  consequently  straight;  while  the  head,  adver- 
tising, and  dash  rules  are  in  the  form  of  segments  of  a  circle. 
The  column-rules  are  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  with  the  thin 
part  directed  toward  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  so  as  to  bind  the 


242  THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 

type  securely.  These  wedge-shaped  column-rules  are  held 
down  to  the  bed  by  tongues  projecting  at  intervals  along  their 
length,  which  slide  in  rebated  grooves  cut  crosswise  in  the  face 
of  the  bed.  The  spaces  in  the  grooves  between  the  column- 
rules  are  accurately  fitted  with  sliding  blocks  of  metal  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  bed,  the  ends  of  which  blocks  are  cut 
away  underneath  to  receive  a  projection  on  the  sides  of  the 
tongues  of  the  column-rules.  The  form  of  type  is  locked  up 
in  the  bed  by  means  of  screws  at  the  foot  and  sides,  by  which 
the  type  is  held  as  securely  as  in  the  ordinary  manner  upon  a 
flat  bed, — if  not  even  more  so.  The  speed  of  these  machines 
is  limited  only  by  the  ability  of  the  feeders  to  supply  the  sheet. 

This  machine  was  first  used  by  the  Public  Ledger  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  was  afterward  adopted  by  the  leading  newspapers 
of  that  city  and  New  York,  as  well  as  of  the  chief  cities  of 
Great  Britain  and  other  countries. 

To  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  largest  size  of  this  press 
it  was  necessary  to  employ  a  dozen  or  more  hands  to  feed  and 
run  it.  This  expensive  feature  was  largely  avoided  in  a  new 
machine  projected  by  Mr.  William  Bullock,  whose  press 
was  the  forerunner  of  several  machines  that  may  be  classed 
under  the  general  name  of  Self-feeding  or  Web  Perfecting 
Presses. 


THE  BULLOCK  WEB   PERFECTING  PRESS. 

THIS  machine  is  intended  for  printing  on  a  continuous 
roll  of  dampened  paper,  which  passes  between  a  pair  of 
cylinders  (one  of  which  is  an  impression  cylinder,  and  the 
other  a  cylinder  around  which  stereotyped  plates  are  bent) 
and  receives  an  impression  on  one  side,  and  the  sheet  then 
goes  forward  and  is  printed  on  the  other  side  while  passing 
between  a  second  pair  of  cylinders  similar  to  the  first,  except 
that  the  impression  cylinder  is  four  times  the  diameter  of  the 
plate  cylinder  to  prevent  more  effectually  the  ink  from  "set- 
ting off."  After  being  printed,  and  before  delivery,  the  sheet 
is  cut  off  by  a  fixed  serrated  cutting  blade,  the  ingenious  in- 
vention of  Victor  Beaumont  of  New  York.  A  French  device 
for  making  flexible  papier-mach6  moulds  rendered  it  pos- 
sible  to   cast   the   type-plates   to  fit   the  printing   cylinders. 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


243 


Without  this  auxiliary,  web   perfecting  presses  would  have 
been  useless  and  impracticable. 

Mr.  Bullock,  born  in  Greene  County,  New  York,  was  a  me- 
chanical genius,  and  was  the  author  of  many  inventions  in 

21* 


244  THE  PR  I  NT  I XG  PRESS. 

various  departments  of  machinery/^'  About  the  j'ear  i860,  he 
began  to  work  out  the  idea  of  a  rotary  self-feeding,  or  web 
perfecting  press.  After  making  a  large  working  model,  which 
is  still  in  existence,  he  adopted  a  simpler  plan,  and  in  1861 
constructed  a  machine  for  the  Citicimiati  Titnes,  which  was 
successfully  operated,  but  it  was  far  from  perfect.  Three  of 
these  machines  were  used  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  office 
of  the  Pliiladelphia  Inquirey. 

He  continued  his  efforts,  and  in  1865  he  produced  a  press 
which  met  his  original  anticipation,  and  a  company  was  formed 
to  manufacture  it.  In  1867,  while  setting  up  a  machine  for  the 
Public  Ledger  in  Philadelphia,  he  suffered  a  serious  injury 
which  terminated  his  life.  More  than  fifty  of  the  presses  are 
now  in  use  in  the  United  States.  The  New  York  Herald  press, 
printing  and  cutting  two  copies  at  each  delivery,  is  said  to  pro- 
duce, with  but  three  men  to  attend  to  it,  30,000  copies  per  hour. 
The  New  York  Sun  states :  "  When  our  seven  Bullock  Presses 
are  working,  we  can  turn  off,  without  extravagant  asserticMi, 
210,000  copies  an  hour."  This  assertion  must  be  taken  with 
some  grains  of  allowance.  The  press  is  twelve  feet  long  by 
five  and  a  half  feet  wide. 


THE  WALTER  PERFECTING  PRESS. 

THE  Bullock  press  was  not  long  allowed  to  be  the  only 
press  for  rapid  printing  from  cylindrical  stereotype  plates 
fed  by  a  so-called  endle.ss  roll  of  paper.  The  principle  was 
applied  to  a  machine  constructed  in  the  London  Times  office, 
called,  after  the  name  of  its  celebrated  proprietor,  the  Walter 
press.  This  appears  to  be  an  effective  press,  but  it  seems  more 
complicated  than  either  the  Bullock  or  Hoe  machine,  and  from 
its  mode  of  delivering  the  sheets,  it  is  excessively  noisy.  The 
New  York  Times  was  printed  on  it  at  the  Centennial  Exhibi- 
tion in  Philadelphia. 

<•)  While  publisher  of  a  paper  in  Catskill,  he  produced  within  a  week,  aided  by 
some  village  mechanics,  a  press  for  his  own  use.  With  the  exception  of  a  stone 
bed,  the  principal  parts  were  made  entirely  of  wood.  It  was  a  flat-bed  press,  having 
a  series  of  impression  cylinders  connected  by  an  endless  chain,  by  means  of  which 
they  passed  over  and  around  the  bed  continually.  He  called  it  the  Chain-running 
Press.  It  was  employed  by  Frank  Leslie  to  print  an  edition  of  his  Illustrated 
Newspaper . 


THE  PRIXTIXG  PRESS. 


245 


THE  HOE    PERFECTING  PRESS. 

THE  enterprise  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  soon  gave 
birth  to  a  web  perfecting  press  combined  with  a  folding 
machine  that  answers  every  requirement. 

The  groundwork  principle  is  the  same  as  in  other  presses 
of  this  kind.  The  first  pair  of  cylinders. over  which  hangs  the 
roll  of  paper  consists  of  one  type  and  one  impression  cylinder, 
and  by  it  the  first  side  of  the  paper  is  printed.  The  second 
pair,  printing  the  second  side,  consists  likewise  of  one  type 
and  one  impression  cylinder,  but  the  latter  is  below  the  former 


THE    HOE   WEB    PERFECTING   PRESS. 


and  is  of  much  greater  size,  so  that  the  "set  off"  from  the  fresl: 
ink  shall  not  fall  continuously  on  the  same  surface  of  blanket. 
There  is  a  third  pair  of  cylinders  which  cuts  off  the  sheet,  and 
a  fourth  (in  which,  however,  one  cylinder  is  replaced  by  a 
brace  of  rollers)  gives  the  first  fold  and  shoots  the  doubled 
sheet  in  the  circular  cutter,  which  slits  it  into  two  papers,  send- 
ing them  on  to  be  folded  again  separately  and  delivered  in 
their  respective  places  in  piles  at  the  side  of  the  press ;  or  the 
papers  are  rolled  up  exactly  on  the  top  of  each  other,  six  in 
number,  and  flown  perfectly  on  the  fly-board. 

This  machine  printed  and  folded  at  the  rate  of  more  than 
28,000  sheets  an  hour  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  printing 
and  folding  at  one  time  two  copies  of  the  Philadelphia  Times. 


246 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


It  is  already  in  use  in  a  dozen  newspaper  establishments  in 
various  parts  of  the  world. 

All  these  machines  were  in  operation  at  the  great  Centen- 
nial Exhibition  in  Philadelphia.  A  fourth  press  exhibited, — 
claimed  by  its  inventor,  Mr.  A.  Campbell  of  New  York,  to  be 
capable  of  printing  much  faster  than  any  other, — was  set  up 
too  late  to  prove  its  capacity  by  actual  test.  No  press  how- 
ever, can  be  made  more  simple  and  with  fewer  parts  than  this. 

RAILROAD-TICKET  PRINTING  AND  NUMBER- 
ING PRESS. 

THESE  presses  not  only  print,  but  at  the  same  operation 
number  consecutively,  tickets  and  coupons  of  every  size 
and  pattern,  which  are  also  indented  or  cut  apart  by  the  ma- 
chines as  fast  as  printed.  Ten  local  tickets  twenty-six  inches 
in  length  can  be  printed  at  one  operation.  The  average  rate 
of  speed  is  about  fourteen  hundred  impressions  an  hour, — 
equivalent  to  fourteen  thousand  tickets. 


JOB  PRESSES. 

THE  invention  of  machines  for  printing  small  work  ele- 
gantly as  well  as  swiftly  is  of  vast  advantage  to  the  printer, 

and  has  greatly  in- 
creased the  job- 
bing department 
of  typography. 
Here,  as  in  other 
matters,  American 
ingenuity  has  ta- 
ken the  lead  of  all 
nations ;  and  the 
presses  invented 
by  Ruggles,  Hoe. 
Gordon,  Degener, 
Wells,  and  Gaily, 
— not  to  mention 
numerous  other 
inventors, — defy 
competition.     The 

GORDON'S   FRANKLIN    PRESS.  KUgglCS  pi  eSSeS 


THE  PRINTING  PRESS. 


247 


NONPAREIL  PRESS. 


formerly  com- 
manded the  trade ; 
but  the  beautiful 
machines  of  Geo. 
P.  Gordon,  a  man 
of  decided  genius, 
and  the  presses 
of  other  makers 
above  named,  have 
entirely  displaced 
them.  Hoe's  half 
medium  cylinder 
job  press  will  run 
2500  impressions 
an  hour. 

Gordon's  Fire- 
fly press  is  unique, 
and  requires  a  so-called  endless  card-board,  which  it  prints 
and  cuts  of  the  required  shape  as  it  goes,  at  the  rate  of  about 
ten  thousand  per  hour.  This  is  not  in  general  use;  but  his 
eighth  medium,  quarto  medium,  and  half  medium  Franklin 
presses,  have  achieved  a  high  reputation  for  expedition  and 
excellent  performance.  Gordon's  Franklin  press  has  been 
reproduced  in  Eu- 
rope under  a  difiTer- 
ent  name. 

We  here  present 
an  engraving  of  an- 
other press  which 
has  achieved  not  a 
little  reputation.  It 
is  called  the  Liberty 
press,  and  is  manu- 
factured by  Degener 
&  Weiler,  of  New 
York.  In  sizes  as 
well  as  in  prices,  it 
corresponds  with 
the  Franklin.  This 
press  also  is  manu- 
factured in  Europe. 


LIBERTY    PfiESS. 


248 


THE  PRINTIXG  PRESS. 


The  Nonpareil,  the 
Globe,  the  Peerless,  and 
the  Universal  job  press- 
es all  have  special  points 
which  commend  them  to 
favour.  Indeed,  with  so 
many  good  macliines 
at  the  command  of  the 
printer,  he  is  without  ex- 
cuse who  does  not  pro- 
duce handsome  work. 

What  are  called  ama- 
teur presses  may  do  well 
enough  to  amuse  the 
boys  of  a  family  and 
keep  them  out  of  mischief;  but  when  they  are  employed  by 
fledgelings  in  competition  with  properly  trained  printers,  they 
become  mere  paper-smearers,  the  work  produced  on  them 
being  simply  detestable  to  an  educated  eye. 


UNIVERSAL  PRESS. 


PEERLESS  PRESS. 


FOLDING  MACHINES. 


249 


BOOK-FOLDING    MACHINE. 


FOLDING  MACHINES. 

BOOK  and  Newspaper  Folders  are  entitled  to  a  high  rank 
'  among  modern  labour-saving  machines.  For  newspapers 
of  large  circulation  and  in  book  establishments  they  have 
become  indispensable.  The  finest  books  may  be  folded  by 
them  with  accuracy,  speed,  and  economy;  and  periodicals 
can  be  folded,  pasted,  and  covered  aL  about  one-fourth  the  cost 
of  hand-folding  alone;  while  the  daily  folio  newspaper  can  be 
folded  in  two,  three,  or  four  folds  as  fast  as  the  machine  press 
can  print;  or  an  eight-page  daily  or  weekly  can  be  folded 
three  or  four  times,  and  all  the  pages  pasted  together  at  the 
back  fold,  and  the  head  margin  trimmed.  All  these  processes 
are  successfully  accomplished  by  the  various  machines  made 
by  Chambers,  Brother  &  Co.  of  Philadelphia.  The  engraving 
given  above  represents  a  book-folding  machine. 


250  SETTING  UP  A    WASHINGTON  PRESS. 


SETTING  UP  A  WASHINGTON    PRESS. 

ALL  the  connecting  parts  being  marked,  or  indenteci  by 
*-  points,  if  these  be  observed  carefully,  the  press  may  be 
put  together  without  difficulty. 

After  setting  the  frame  upon  its  legs,  and  putting  on  the 
ribs  and  bed,  lay  the  platen  on  the  bed,  placing  under  it  two 
bearers  about  type  high.  Then  put  the  springs  in  their  places, 
and  the  nuts  over  them,  and  pass  the  suspending-rods  through 
them,  observing  to  place  the  rods  so  that  the  number  of  in- 
dentations on  them  correspond  with  those  on  the  platen.  Give 
the  nuts  two  or  three  turns,  then  run  in  the  bed  so  as  to  bring 
the  platen  under  the  rods,  and  screw  them  fast  to  the  platen; 
after  which,  put  in  the  bar-handle,  standard,  and  lever,  (or 
wedge  and  knees,  if  a  Smith  press.)  Turn  the  nuts  on  the 
suspending-rods,  so  as  to  compress  the  springs  just  enough  to 
give  the  platen  a  quick  retrograde  motion,  observing  at  the 
same  time  to  get  the  surface  of  the  platen  parallel  with  the 
surface  of  the  bed. 

After  having  put  the  press  together  and  levelled  it  by  means 
of  a  spirit-level,  be  particular  not  to  raise  the  end  of  the  ribs 
by  the  gallows,  but  let  it  go  under  rather  loose,  which  will 
have  a  tendency  to  make  the  bed  slide  with  more  ease  on  the 
ribs. 

SETTING  UP  THE  ROLLER-STAND. 

THE  roller-stand  containing  the  distributing  cylinder  should 
be  regulated  to  the  height  of  the  press,  bringing  the  shelf 
or  bridge  even  with  the  corner  irons,  and  at  sufficient  distance 
from  the  bed  to  allow  it  to  run  clear;  the  stand  should  then  be 
firmly  braced,  as  the  constant  turning  of  the  rounce  is  very 
apt  to  loosen  it;  meanwhile  Iseing  cautious  to  observe  that  the 
rounce,  in  its  revolutions,  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
frame  of  the  tympan  when  up.  The  position  of  the  distri- 
buting cylinder  should  be  sufficiently  high  to  allow  the  two 
composition  rollers,  at  least  one  inch  apart,  to  rest  on  its  top 
without  danger  of  touching  the  shelf  or  bridge  in  front.  It 
is  advantageous  to  nail  two  narrow  strips  of  sole  leather  on 
the  face  of  the  shelf,  about  eight  or   ten   inches  from   each 


SETTING   UP  THE  ROLLER  STAXD. 


251 


ROLLER   STAND. 


end,  which,  acting  as  bearers,  cause  the  rollers  to  pass  very 
smoothly  over  them. 

The  roller-handle  while  in  use  should  lie  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  back  end  being  supported  by  a  bar  of  wood  or 
iron  running  parallel  with  the  distributing  cylinder.  There 
should  be  a  notch,  or  hook,  about  two  inches  from  the  end  of 
the  handle,  to  catch  on  the  wooden  supporter,  to  prevent  the 
rollers  from  jumping  forward  while  distributing  or  changing. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  have  a  back-board  for  the  end  of  the 
roller  to  strike  against  in  coming  off  the  form,  to  prevent  the 
rollers  from  falling  backward. 

The  ink-block  is  placed  about  five  or  six  inches  to  the  right 
of  the  roller-handle,  and  about  on  a  level  with  it.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  the  ink-slice,  and  a  brayer,  or  a  small  roller  about 
four  or  five  inches  long,  and  of  the  same  circumference  with 
the  larger  rollers,  being  cast  in  the  same  mould. 


252 


COMPOSITION  ROLLERS. 


COMPOSITION   ROLLERS. 

PUT  the  glue  in  a  bucket  or  pan,  and  cover  it  with  water ; 
let  it  stand  until  more  than  half  penetrated  with  water, 
taking  care  that  it  shall  not  soak  too  long,  and  then  pour  it  off 
and  let  it  remain  until  it  becomes  soft,  when  it  will  be  ready 
for  the  melting  kettle.  This  is  a  double  vessel,  like  a  glue 
kettle.  Put  the  soaked  glue  into  the  inner  vessel,  and  as  much 
water  in  the  outer  boiler  as  it  will  contain  when  the  inner  ves- 
sel is  placed  in  it.     When  the  glue  is  all  melted,  (if  too  thick, 

add  a  little  water,)  the  molas- 
ses may  be  slowly  poured  into 
it,  and  well  mixed  with  the  glue 
by  frequent  stirring.  When 
properly  prepared,  the  compo- 
sition does  not  require  boiling 
more  than  an  hour.  Too  much 
boiling  candies  the  molasses, 
and  the  roller,  consequently, 
will  be  found  to  lose  its  suction 
much  sooner.  In  proportion- 
ing the  material,  much  depends 
upon  the  weather  and  tempera- 
ture of  the  place  in  which  the 
rollers  are  to  be  used.  Eight 
pounds  of  glue  to  one  gallon 
of  sugar-house  molasses,  or  syrup,  is  a  very  good  propor- 
tion for  summer-time,  and  four  pounds  of  glue  to  one  gallon 
of  molasses  for  winter  use.  Glue  for  rollers  should  be  clear 
and  bright  in  body,  and  even  in  texture,  when  held  up  to 
the  light:  it  should  break  short,  and  with  a  clear,  sharp  edge 
like  glass. 

For  hand-press  rollers  more  molasses  should  be  used,  as 
they  are  not  subject  to  so  much  hard  usage  as  cylinder-press 
rollers,  and  do  not  require  to  be  as  strong;  for  the  more  mo- 
lasses that  can  be  used  the  better  will  be  the  roller.  Before 
pouring  a  roller,  the  mould  should  be  perfectly  clean,  and 
well  oiled  with  a  swab,  but  not  to  excess,  as  too  much  oil 
makes  the  face  of  the  roller  seamy  and  ragged.  The  end 
pieces  should  then  be  oiled,  and,  together  with  the  cylinder, 
placed  in  the  mould,  the  upper-end  piece  being  very  open,  to 


MELTING   KETTLE. 


COMPOSITION  ROLLERS.  255 

allow  the  composition  to  pass  down  between  the  interior  of 
the  mould  and  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder  must  be  well  se- 
cured from  rising,  before  the  composition  is  poured  in,  by- 
placing  a  stick  upon  the  end  of  it,  sufficiently  long  to  reach 
above  the  end  of  the  mould,  and  be  tied  down  with  twine. 
The  composition  should  be  poured  very  slowly,  and  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  cause  it  to  run  down  only  one  side  of  the  cylin- 
der, allowing  the  air  to  escape  freely  up  the  other. 

If  the  mould  is  filled  at  night,  the  roller  may  be  drawn  the 
next  morning ;  but  it  should  not  be  used  for  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours  after,  except  in  very  cold  weather. 

To  determine  when  a  roller  is  in  order  for  working,  press 
the  hand  gently  on  it:  if  the  fingers  pass  smoothly  over  its 
surface,  it  may  be  said  to  be  in  order;  but  should  it  be  so 
adhesive  that  the  fingers  cling  to  it,  it  is  not  sufficiently  dry, 
and  should  be  exposed  to  the  air. 

Rollers  should  not  be  washed  immediately  after  use,  but 
should  be  put  away  with  the  ink  on  them,  as  it  protects  the 
surface  from  the  action  of  the  air.  When  washed  and  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere  for  any  length  of  time,  they  become  dry  and 
skinny.  They  should  be  washed  about  half  an  hour  before 
using  them.  In  cleaning  a  nezv  roller,  a  little  oil  rubbed  over 
it  will  loosen  the  ink :  and  it  should  be  scraped  clean  with  the 
back  of  a  case-knife.  It  should  be  cleaned  in  this  way  for 
about  one  week,  when  ley  may  be  used.  New  rollers  are 
often  spoiled  by  washing  them  too  soon  with  ley.  Benzine 
may  be  substituted  for  oil;  but,  owing  to  its  combustible 
nature,  it  is  objectionable,  as  disastrous  accidents  have  ensued 
from  its  use. 

Mr.  Hansard,  an  eminent  English  printer,  says,  "Take 
glue,  made  from  the  cuttings  of  parchment  or  vellum,  fine 
green  molasses,  pure  as  from  the  sugar-refiners,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  the  substance  called  Paris-white,  and  you  will 
have  every  ingredient  requisite  for  good  composition.  The 
proportion  as  follows : — 

Glue,  2  lbs.        Molasses,  6  lbs.        Paris-white,  Yz  lb. 

Put  the  glue  in  a  little  water  for  a  few  hours  to  soak ;  pour  off" 
the  liquid ;  put  the  glue  over  the  fire,  and  when  it  is  dissolved 
add  the  molasses,  and  let  them  be  well  incorporated  together 
for  at  least  an  hour;    then,  with  a  very  fine  sieve,  mix  the 


254  COVERING  TYMPANS. 

Paris-white,  frequently  stirring  the  composition.     In  another 
hour,  or  less,  it  will  be  fit  to  pour  into  the  mould." 

Various  patented  compositions  for  rollers  may  now  be  had 
from  type-founders. 

COVERING  TYMPANS. 

TYMPANS  are  generally  covered  with  parchment,  which 
should  be  of  an  even  thickness,  and  about  two  inches  and 
a  half  wider  and  three  inches  longer  than  the  tympans.  Tym- 
pans  have  been  sometimes  covered  with  linen,  which,  on 
account  of  its  evenness,  would  answer  the  purpose;  but  it  is 
so  apt  to  stretch,  that  the  tympans  become  slack  in  a  short 
time,  and  bag  (as  it  is  termed),  and  thus  slur  the  impression. 
Silk  is  excellent  for  fine  work. 

The  pressman  spreads  as  much  good  paste  on  the  edges  of 
the  skin  as  will  cover  the  frame  of  the  tympan,  which  is  also 
well  pasted.  He  then  lays  the  skin  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
frame,  with  the  flesh  side  to  face  the  type,  and  draws  it  regu- 
larly, as  tight  as  possible,  on  all  sides.  The  part  of  the  skin 
that  comes  on  the  grooves  of  the  tympan  which  receive  the 
point-screws,  is  cut  and  wrapped  round  the  inside  edge  of  the 
grooves,  which  admits  a  free  passage  for  the  screws.  After 
having  fastened  the  skin  on  the  sides  of  the  tympan,  he  draws 
it  toward  the  joints  which  receive  the  frisket,  and  with  a  knife 
cuts  across  these  joints  to  let  them  through  the  skin ;  he  then 
puts  the  frisket-pins  through  the  parchment,  and  makes  that 
end  of  the  tympan  fast.  He  next  proceeds  to  the  lower  joints, 
and  brings  the  skin  as  tight  as  he  can  round  that  part  of  the 
tympan.  The  point-screws  and  duck-bill  are  then  put  on, 
which  prevent  the  skin  from  starting.  The  inner  tympan,  or 
drawer,  is  covered  in  the  same  manner.  To  prevent  their 
warping  when  the  skin  begins  to  draw,  pieces  of  furniture  or 
wood  of  any  kind  should  be  placed  across  the  centre  till  they 
are  perfectly  dry. 

The  skins  are  put  on  either  wet  or  dry:  if  dry,  they  should 
be  afterward  well  wet,  which  will  make  them  give  some- 
what; but  when  they  dry  they  will  contract,  and  by  this 
means  will  be  rendered  much  tighter  than  they  would  be  if 
put  on  wet. 


WETTING  PAPER.  255 


WETTING  PAPER. 

THE  size  of  the  wetting-trough  should  be  about  two  inches 
longer  and  wider  than  the  largest-sized  paper,  folded,  that 
is  to  be  wet  in  it,  and  about  six  inches  deep.  It  should  have  a 
cover  with  hinges  on  the  left  side,  that  the  cover  may  fall  over 
on  that  side,  and,  resting  horizontally,  serve  for  a  shelf  to  lay 
the  paper  upon  previous  to  wetting  it. 

Having  received  a  certain  amount  of  paper  from  the  ware- 
houseman, the  pressman  lays  one  heap  on  the  shelf  attached 
to  the  wetting-trough,  laying  the  first  token  across  the  heap 
with  the  back  of  the  quires  toward  his  right  hand,  that  he  may 
know  when  to  turn  the  token-sheet,  and  that  he  may  more 
readily  catch  at  the  back  of  each  quire  with  that  hand,  for  the 
purpose  of  dipping  it.  He  then  places  the  paper-board  with 
its  breadth  before  him  on  his  right,  on  a  table,  laying  a  wrapper 
or  a  waste  sheet  of  paper  on  the  board,  to  prevent  soiling  the 
first  sheet  of  the  heap. 

He  then  takes  a  quire  by  the  centre  of  the  back  with  his 
right  hand,  and  the  edge  of  it  in  his  left,  and,  closing  his  hands 
a  little,  that  the  quire  may  bend  downward  between  his  hands, 
he  dips  the  back  of  the  quire  into  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
trough,  and,  relinquishing  his  hold  with  the  left  hand,  draws 
the  quire  briskly  through  the  water  with  his  right.  As  the 
quire  comes  out,  he  quickly  catches  the  edge  of  it  again  in  his 
left  hand,  and  brings  it  to  the  heap,  and,  by  lifting  his  left 
hand,  bears  the  under  side  of  the  quire  off  the  paper  pre- 
viously laid  down,  till  he  has  placed  the  quire  in  an  even  posi- 
tion ;  if  the  paper  be  weak  and  spongy,  he  draws  the  quire 
through  the  water  quickly ;  if  strong  and  stubborn,  slowly. 
To  place  the  quire  in  an  even  position,  he  lays  the  back  of  it 
exactly  upon  the  open  crease  of  the  former,  and  then  lets  the 
side  of  the  quire  in  his  left  hand  fall  flat  down  upon  the  heap, 
and,  discharging  his  right  hand,  brings  it  to  the  edge  of  the 
quire,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  his  left  thumb,  still  in  its 
first  position,  opens  or  divides  either  a  third  or  a  half  of  the 
quire,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  paper;  then,  spreading 
the  fingers  of  his  right  hand  as  much  as  he  can  through  the 
length  of  the  quire,  turns  over  his  opened  division  of  it  upon 
his  right-hand  side  of  the  heap. 

A  different  process  must  be  used  in  the  wetting  of  drawing 


256  WETTING  PAPER. 

and  plate  papers.  These  papers  are  usually  sent  in  quite  flat; 
tliat  is,  not  folded  into  (]uires  or  half-quires.  The  best  method 
of  wetting  these  papers  is  to  use  a  brush,  such  as  is  called  a 
banister  brush;  and,  instead  of  dipping  the  paper  into  the 
trough,  he  lays  it  on  the  paper-board  by  the  side  of  the  trough, 
and,  dipping  the  brush  into  the  water,  he  shakes  it  gently  over 
the  whole  surface,  to  give  an  equal  degree  of  moisture  to  all 
parts  ;  and  then  proceeds  as  before  described.  The  drawing- 
paper,  being  very  hard-sized  in  the  making,  will  require  the 
brush,  and  much  water,  three,  four,  or  even  five  times  a  quire; 
while  the  plate-paper  should  have  as  little  water  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  give  it,  so  as  to  cover  it  all  over ;  and  twice  a  quire  will 
often  be  too  much.  This  same  mode  must  also  be  adopted  in 
wetting  paper  of  extraordinary  dimensions. 

Having  wet  his  first  token,  he  doubles  down  a  corner  of  the 
upper  sheet  of  it  on  his  right  hand,  so  that  the  farther  corner 
may  be  a  little  toward  the  left  of  the  crease  in  the  middle  of 
the  heap,  and  the  other  corner  may  hang  out  on  the  near  side 
of  the  heap  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  This  sheet  is  called  the 
token-sheet,  being  a  mark  for  the  pressman,  when  he  is  at 
work,  to  show  how  many  tokens  of  that  heap  are  worked  off. 

Having  wet  the  whole  heap,  he  lays  a  wrapper,  or  waste 
sheet  of  paper,  upon  it;  then,  three  or  four  times,  takes  up  as 
much  water  as  he  can  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and  throws  it 
over  the  waste  sheet,  to  moisten  and  soak  downward  into  the 
wet  part  of  the  last  division  of  the  quire ;  after  which,  he  places 
in  the  heap  the  label  which  the  warehouseman  nuist  always 
furnish  for  each  heap,  and  upon  which  are  written  the  title  of 
the  work  and  the  date  of  wetting,  one-half  hanging  out  so  as 
to  be  easily  read. 

The  paper  should  be  pressed  for  twelve  hours,  and  then 
carefully  turned  by  each  tliree  or  four  sheets,  so  that  no  lift  be 
relaid  in  the  same  position  with  respect  to  the  adjoining  lift; 
at  the  same  time,  every  fold  and  wrinkle  must  be  carefully 
rubbed  out  by  the  action  of  the  hand,  so  that  nothing  but  a 
flat  and  even  surface  shall  remain;  tiie  heap  sliould  then  be 
pressed  for  about  twenty-four  hours  in  a  screw-press,  and  it 
will  be  in  good  order  for  working. 

The  wetting  of  paper  must,  in  all  cases,  depend  entirely 
upon  its  fabric  ;  and,  since  the  printer  lias  seldom  the  choice 
of  the  paper,  it  will  require  ail  iiis  skill  and  patience  to  adapt 


BLANKETS— MAKING  READY.  257 

his  labours  to  the  materials  upon  which  he  is  to  work.  The 
texture  of  the  paper  must  be  suited  to  the  fineness  and  tena- 
city of  the  ink.  To  attempt  doing  fine  work  upon  common 
paper  is  lost  labour.  A  paper  to  take  the  best  ink  must  be 
made  entirely  of  linen  rags,  atid  not  bleached  by  chemicals. 
A  fine  hand-made  paper,  fabricated  a  sufficient  time  to  get 
properly  hardened,  and  well  and  equally  saturated  with  size, 
so  as  not  to  imbibe  more  water  in  one  part  of  the  dip  than  in 
another,  nor  resisting  the  water  like  a  duck's  back,  is  most 
suitable  for  fine  printing. 

Machines  for  wetting  paper  are  now  used  in  most  large 
printing-offices. 

BLANKETS. 

WOOLLEN  blankets  are  unnecessary  when  a  book  is 
printed  from  new  type.  Nothing  more  should  be  used 
than  a  sheet  or  two  of  paper,  as  in  fine  work  only  the  face  of 
the  type  should  show  in  the  impression.  But  when  the  types 
or  plates  are  worn  and  rounded,  fine  cassimere  or  broadcloth 
should  be  used  in  the  tympan.  In  this,  as  in  all  matters  con- 
nected with  artistic  typography,  the  pressman  must  display 
good  judgment  and  discretion. 

MAKING  READY  A  FORM  ON  A  HAND-PRESS. 

BEFORE  a  form  is  laid  on  the  press,  the  pressman  should 
carefully  wipe  the  bottom  of  the  type  and  the  bed  perfectly 
clean;  for,  if  a  particle  of  sand  remain  on  it,  it  will  cause  a 
type  or  two  to  rise,  and  not  only  make  a  stronger  impression, 
but  probably  injure  the  letters. 

An  octavo  form  should  be  laid  on  the  press  with  the  signa- 
ture-page to  the  left  hand,  or  nearest  the  platen ;  a  duodecimo, 
or  its  combinations,  with  the  signature  at  the  right  hand,  or 
nearest  the  tympan.  The  form  should  be  laid  under  the  centre 
of  the  platen,  and  properly  quoined  up.  The  tympan  is  then 
laid  down,  and  wet  if  necessary,  and  paper  or  blanket  put  in. 
It  was  formerly  customary  to  wet  the  tympans  for  all  works, 
and  even  jobs  of  almost  every  description ;  but,  since  the  in- 
troduction of  fine  printing,  and  particularly  iron  presses,  the 
custom  is  well-nigh  banished,  excepting  for  very  heavy  forms. 


258  MAKING  READY  A  FORM. 

composed  with  old  letter,  which,  of  course,  require  more  soft- 
ness to  bring  them  off.  After  the  inner  tympan  or  drawer  is 
put  in,  it  is  fastened  with  the  hooks  for  that  purpose,  which 
serve  to  keep  it  from  springing  out.  The  tympan  being  lifted 
up,  a  sheet  of  the  paper  to  be  worked  is  folded  in  quarto,  and 
the  short  crease  is  placed  over  the  middle  of  the  grooves  of  the 
short  cross,  if  it  lie  in  the  centre  of  the  form,  as  in  octavo.  In 
a  form  of  twelves,  the  paper  is  folded  in  thirds,  and  the  long 
crease  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  long  cross,  and  the  short 
cross  over  the  grooves.  The  sheet  lying  evenly  on  the  form, 
the  tympan  is  brought  down,  and  a  gentle  pull  will  cause  the 
paper  to  adhere,  when  it  should  be  pasted  to  the  tympan  and 
fully  stretched.  The  points  are  next  screwed  to  the  tympan, 
for  large  paper  short-shanked  points  being  used,  and  long- 
shanked  for  small  paper.  In  twelves,  the  points  must  be 
placed  at  precisely  equal  distances  from  the  edge  of  the  paper. 
In  octavo,  the  off-point  may  be  a  little  larger  than  the  near 
one,  as  it  enables  the  pressman  to  detect  a  turned  heap  when 
working  the  reiteration  or  second  side. 

When  a  press  is  continued  upon  the  same  work,  the  quoins 
on  the  off-side  of  the  bed  may  remain  and  serve  as  gauges  for 
the  succeeding  forms;  for,  if  the  chases  are  equal  in  size,  the 
register  will  be  almost,  if  not  quite,  perfect. 

The  following  operations  are  comprised  in  the  term  of 
making  ready  the  form  : — 

1.  The  frisket  should  be  cov'ered  with  stout  even  paper,  in 
the  manner  described  for  putting  on  parchment,  the  paper  be- 
ing carefully  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  frame  so  as  to  lie  close 
to  the  tympan,  and  to  confine  the  sheet  in  its  place  when  laid 
on  for  printing.  When  the  paste  is  dry,  the  frisket  is  put  on 
the  tympan,  and,  after  inking  the  form,  an  impression  pulled 
upon  it.  The  frisket  is  then  taken  off  and  laid  on  a  board,  or 
on  the  bank,  and  the  impression  of  the  pages  cut  out  with  a 
sharp  knife  about  a  Pica  em  larger  than  the  page.  After  being 
replaced  on  the  tympan,  it  is  advisable  to  put  a  few  cords 
across,  to  strengthen  the  bars  of  paper,  and  to  keep  the  sheets 
close  to  the  tympan.  When  the  margin  is  too  small  to  admit 
bars  of  paper,  it  is  necessary  to  work  witii  cords  only. 

2.  The  form  should  be  examined,  to  see  that  it  is  ])roperly 
locked  up  and  planed  down ;  that  no  letters  or  spaces  lie  in  the 
white  lines  of  the  form,  nor  between  the  lines  in  leaded  matter. 


MAKING  READY  A  FORM.  259 

3.  White  pages  which  occur  in  a  form  must  not  be  cut  out; 
but,  if  the  page  be  already  cut  out,  a  piece  of  paper  must  be 
pasted  on  the  frisket,  to  cover  the  white  page  in  the  form,  and 
a  bearer  put  on  to  keep  the  adjoining  pages  from  having  too 
hard  an  impression.  Some  pressmen  use  reglets,  others  furni- 
ture cut  to  a  proper  height,  and  a  third  class  adopt  cork,  which, 
from  its  elasticity,  is  very  useful.  Spring  bearers,  made  of 
hard  paper  rolled  up,  are  also  employed  to  guard  the  sides  and 
bottoms  of  light  and  open  pages,  when  there  is  an  inclination 
to  slur. 

4.  The  pressman  must  examine  whether  the  frisket  bites ; 
that  is,  whether  it  keeps  off  the  impression  from  any  part  of 
the  pages. 

5.  He  must  consider  whether  the  catch  of  the  frisket  stands 
either  too  far  forward  or  backward :  if  forward,  he  may  be  much 
delayed  by  its  falling  down,  and,  if  backward,  it  will  come  down 
too  slowly,  and  thus  retard  the  progress  of  the  work  and  not 
unfrequently  cause  the  sheet  to  slip  out  of  its  proper  place. 
He  must,  therefore,  place  the  catch  so  that  the  frisket  may  stand 
a  little  more  than  perpendicularly  backward,  that,  when  lightly 
tossed  up,  it  may  just  stand,  and  not  come  back. 

6.  He  must  fit  the  gallows  so  that  the  tympan  may  stand  as 
much  toward  an  upright  as  he  can ;  because  it  is  the  sooner 
let  down  upon  the  form  and  lifted  up  again.  But  yet  he  must 
not  place  it  so  upright  as  to  prevent  the  white  sheets  of  the 
paper  from  lying  secure  on  the  tympan. 

7.  The  range  of  the  paper-bank  should  not  stand  at  right 
angles  with  the  bed  of  the  press ;  but  the  farther  end  of  the 
bank  should  be  placed  so  that  the  near  side  may  make  an 
angle  of  about  seventy-five  degrees  with  the  near  side  of 
the  bed. 

8.  The  heap  of  paper  should  be  set  on  the  horse  on  the  near 
end  of  the  paper-bank,  near  the  tympan,  yet  not  touching  it. 
The  uppermost  or  outside  sheet  should  be  laid  on  the  bank ; 
and  the  pressman  then  takes  four  or  five  quires  off"  his  heap, 
and  shakes  them  at  each  end,  to  loosen  the  sheets,  till  he  finds 
he  has  sufficiently  loosened  or  hollowed  the  heap.  Then,  with 
the  nail  of  his  right-hand  thumb,  he  draws  or  slides  forward 
the  upper  sheet,  and  two  or  three  more  commonly  follow  gra- 
dually with  it,  over  the  hither  edge  of  the  heap,  to  prepare 
those  sheets  ready  for  laying  on  the  tympan. 


26o  PULLING. 

9.  He  must  next  pull  a  revise  sheet,  which  must  be  sent  up 
to  the  overseer  for  a  tinal  revision,  and  for  examining  whether 
any  letters  have  dropped  out  of  the  form  in  putting  it  on  the 
press,  &c. 

10.  While  the  sheet  is  undergoing  a  revision,  the  pressman 
should  proceed  to  make  register,  if  half-sheet-wise,  which  is 
done  by  pulling  a  waste  sheet,  and  turning  it,  (without  inking, 
as  the  sheets  may  afterward  be  used  for  slip  sheets,)  being 
particular  not  to  stretch  the  point-holes  in  the  least,  or  to  draw 
the  hand  along  the  sheet  in  leaving  it.  In  making  register, 
the  points  must  be  knocked  up  or  down  in  such  a  direction 
as  will  bring  the  first  impression  under  the  last,  knocking 
the  point  only  half  the  distance  apparent  on  the  sheet.  If 
register  cannot  be  made  with  the  points,  the  difficulty  must 
then  be  either  in  the  furniture,  the  length  of  the  pages,  or  in 
the  springing  of  the  cross-bars,  from  the  forms  being  locked 
up  by  careless  compositors,  who  commence  at  one  quarter  of 
the  form,  and  lock  it  up  tightly,  and  so  go  around,  instead 
of  gently  tapping  it  at  opposite  sides  till  the  whole  is  equally 
tightened.  In  locking  up  a  form,  the  quoins  at  the  feet  should 
be  gently  struck  first,  to  force  up  the  pages  and  prevent  their 
hanging;  but,  in  unlocking,  the  side  quoins  must  be  first 
slackened. 

Altering  the  quoins  will  not  make  good  register,  when  the 
compositor  has  not  made  the  white  exactly  equal  between  all 
the  sides  of  the  crosses.  The  pressman,  therefore,  will  ascer- 
tain which  side  has  too  much  or  too  little  white,  and,  unlock- 
ing the  form,  will  take  out  or  put  in  as  many  leads  or  reglets 
as  will  make  good  register. 

PULLING. 

IN  taking  a  sheet  off"  the  heap,  the  pressman  places  himself 
almost  straight  before  the  near  side  of  the  tympan,  but 
nimbly  twists  the  upper  part  of  his  body  a  little  backward 
toward  the  heap,  the  better  to  see  that  he  takes  but  one  sheet 
off".  This  he  loosens  from  the  rest  of  the  heap  by  drawing  the 
back  of  the  nail  of  iiis  right  thuml)  quickly  over  tlie  bottom 
part  of  tiie  heap,  and,  receiving  tlie  near  end  of  the  siieet  with 
his  left-hand  fingers  and  thumb,  catches  it  by  the  farther  edge 
with  his  right  hand,  about  four  inches  from  the  upper  corner 


PULLING.  261 

of  the  sheet,  and  brings  it  swiftly  to  the  tympan:  having  the 
sheet  thus  in  both  his  hands,  he  lays  the  f^irther  side  and  two 
extreme  corners  of  the  sheet  down  even  upon  the  farther 
side  and  extreme  farther  corners  of  the  tympan-sheet.  In  the 
reiteration,  care  should  be  taken  to  draw  the  thumb  on  the 
margin,  or  between  the  gutters,  to  avoid  smearing  the  sheet. 
The  sheet  being  properly  laid  on,  he  supports  it  in  the  centre 
by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  while  his  right  hand,  being 
disengaged,  is  removed  to  the  back  of  the  ear  of  the  frisket,  to 
bring  it  down  upon  the  t>'mpan,  laying  at  the  same  moment 
the  tympan  on  the  form.  He  then,  with  his  left  hand,  grasps 
the  rounce,  and  quickly  runs  the  form  under  the  platen ;  and,, 
after  pulling,  he  gives  a  quick  and  strong  pressure  upon  the 
rounce,  to  run  the  carriage  out  again.  Letting  go  the  rounce, 
he  places  the  fingers  of  his  left  hand  toward  the  bottom  of  the 
tympan,  to  assist  the  right  hand  in  lifting  it  up,  and  also  to  be 
ready  to  catch  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  when  the  frisket  rises, 
which  he  conveys  quickly  and  gently  to  the  catch :  while  it  is 
going  up,  he  slips  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  under  the  near 
lower  corner  of  the  sheet,  which,  with  the  aid  of  his  two  fore- 
fingers, he  raises,  the  right  hand  at  the  same  time  grasping  it 
at  the  top  in  the  same  manner.  Lifting  the  sheet  carefully 
and  expeditiously  off"  the  points,  and  nimbly  twisting  about 
his  body  toward  the  paper-bank,  he  carries  the  sheet  over  the 
heap  of  white  paper  to  the  bank,  and  lays  it  down  upon  a 
waste  sheet  or  wrapper;  but,  while  it  is  coming  over  the 
white  paper  heap,  though  he  has  the  sheet  between  both  his 
forefingers  and  thumbs,  yet  he  holds  it  so  loosely  that  it  may 
move  between  them  as  on  two  centres,  as  his  body  twists 
about  from  the  side  of  the  tympan  toward  the  side  of  the 
paper-bank. 

When  the  pressman  comes  to  a  token  sheet,  he  undoubles 
it,  and  smooths  out  the  crease  with  the  back  of  the  nails  of  his 
right  hand,  that  the  face  of  the  letter  may  print  upon  smooth 
paper;  and,  being  printed  off,  he  folds  it  again,  as  before,  for 
a  token-sheet,  when  he  works  the  reiteration. 

Having  worked  off  the  white  paper  of  a  form  of  twelves,  he 
places  his  right  hand  under  the  heap,  and,  his  left  hand  sup- 
porting the  end  near  him,  turns  it  over  on  the  horse,  with  the 
printed  side  downward.  If  the  form  be  octavo,  he  places  his 
left  hand  under  the  heap,  supporting  the  outside  near  end  with 


262  RULES  AND  JiEMEDIES. 

his  right  hand,  and  turns  it  one  end  over  the  other.  All  turn- 
ing of  the  paper  for  reiteration  is  treated  in  one  of  these  modes. 
In  performing  this  operation,  he  takes  from  the  heap  only  as 
much  at  once  as  he  can  well  handle  without  disordering  the 
evenness  of  the  sides  of  the  paper. 

Having  turned  the  heap,  he  proceeds  to  work  it  off,  as  be- 
fore described,  except  that  with  the  left  hand  he  guides  the 
point-holes  over  the  points,  moving  the  sheet  with  the  right 
hand,  more  or  less,  to  assist  him  in  so  doing.  The  token- 
sheets,  as  he  meets  with  them,  he  does  not  fold  down  again. 

RULES  AND  REMEDIES  FOR  PRESSMEN. 

ABOUT  every  five  or  six  sheets  a  small  quantity  of  ink 
■t\  should  be  taken ;  yet  this  rule  is  subject  to  some  variation 
from  the  nature  of  the  work  and  quality  of  the  ink.  A  form 
of  large  type  or  solid  matter  will  require  ink  to  be  taken 
more  frequently,  and  a  light  form  of  small  type  less  fre- 
quently. During  the  intervals  in  which  the  roller-boy  is  not 
employed  in  brayering  out  or  taking  ink,  he  should  be  almost 
constantly  engaged  in  distributing  or  changing  his  rollers. 
He  should  invariably  take  ink  on  the  back  roller,  as  it  will  the 
sooner  be  conveyed  to  the  other  roller,  and,  consequently,  save 
time  in  distributing.  When,  through  carelessness,  too  much 
ink  has  been  taken,  it  should  be  removed  by  laying  a  piece 
of  clean  waste  paper  on  one  of  the  rollers,  and  working  it 
off  till  the  ink  is  reduced  to  the  proper  quantity. 

If  letters,  quadrates,  or  furniture  rise  up  and  black  the 
paper,  they  should  be  put  down,  and  the  quarter  locked  up 
tighter. 

If  any  letters  are  battered,  the  quarter  they  are  in  must  be 
unlocked,  and  perfect  ones  put  in  by  the  compositor. 

When  bearers  become  too  thin  by  long  working,  they  should 
be  replaced  by  thicker  ones. 

VV'hen  the  form  gets  out  of  register, — which  will  often  happen 
by  the  starting  of  the  quoins  which  secure  the  ciiase, — it  must 
be  immediately  put  in  again,  as  there  can  scarcely  l)e  a  greater 
defect  in  a  book  than  the  want  of  uniformity  in  tliis  particular. 

If  picks,  produced  by  bits  of  paper,  composition,  or  film  of 
ink  and  grease  or  filth,  get  into  the  form,  they  must  be  re- 
moved with  the  point  of  a  pin  or  needle ;   but  if  the  form  is 


RULES  AND  REMEDIES.  263 

much  clogged  with  them,  it  should  be  well  rubbed  over  with 
clean  ley,  or  taken  oft"  and  washed :  in  either  case,  before  the 
pressman  goes  on  again,  it  should  be  made  perfectly  dry  by 
pulling  several  waste  sheets  upon  it,  in  order  to  suck  up  the 
water  deposited  in  the  cavities  of  the  letter. 

The  pressman  should  accustom  himself  to  look  over  every 
sheet  as  he  takes  it  off  the  tympan :  he  will  thus  be  enabled 
not  only  to  observe  any  want  of  uniformity  in  the  colour,  but 
also  to  detect  imperfections  which  might  otherwise  escape 
notice. 

In  order  to  make  perfect  uniformity  in  the  colour,  the 
roller-boy  should  keep  his  ink  well  brayered  out  with  the 
small  roller,  in  proper  quantities  for  the  work  in  hand,  and 
also  should  change  his  rollers  well  after  taking  ink,  and  at 
other  times.  The  rollers  are  changed  by  moving  the  roller- 
handle  slowly  to  the  right  and  left,  while  the  crank  is  being 
turned  briskly  with  the  left  hand. 

Torn  or  stained  sheets  met  with  in  the  course  of  work  are 
thrown  out  and  placed  under  the  bank.  Creases  and  wrinkles 
will  frequently  appear  in  the  sheets  when  the  paper  has  been 
carelessly  wet :  these  should  be  carefully  removed  by  smooth- 
ing them  out  with  the  back  of  the  nails  of  the  right  hand. 

If  the  frame  of  the  tympan  rub  against  the  platen,  it  will 
inevitably  cause  a  slur  or  mackle :  this  can  easily  be  remedied 
by  moving  the  tympan  so  as  to  clear  the  platen.  The  joints  or 
hinges  of  the  tympan  should  be  kept  well  screwed  up,  or  slur- 
ring will  be  the  consequence.  When  the  thumb-piece  of  the 
frisket  is  too  long,  it  always  produces  a  slur :  this  can  be  pre- 
vented by  filing  off"  a  part  of  it.  Loose  tympans  will  at  all 
times  slur  the  work,  and  great  care  must  therefore  be  observed 
in  drawing  them  perfectly  tight.  The  paper  drying  at  the 
edges  will  also  cause  a  slur :  this  may  be  remedied  by  wetting- 
the  edges  frequently  with  a  sponge. 

Slurring  and  mackling  will  sometimes  happen  from  other 
causes:  it  will  be  well  in  such  cases  to  paste  corks  on  the 
frisket,  or  to  tie  as  many  cords  as  possible  across  it,  to  keep 
the  sheet  close  to  the  tympan. 

The  pressman  should  make  the  boy  roll  slowly,  or  the 
rollers  will  be  apt  to  jump,  and  cause  a  friar.  To  prevent  the 
rollers  from  jumping  or  bounding,  bridges  or  springs  made 
of  thin  steel,  to  reach  across  the  gutters,  may  be  used:  these 

23 


264  THE  LEY-TROUGH. 

springs  should  taper  off  at  the  ends,  and  having  an  oblong  hole 
in  each  end,  through  which  they  may  be  tacked  to  the  gutter- 
sticks.  In  very  open  forms,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  bearers 
or  pieces  of  reglet  where  the  blank  pages  occur  at  the  end  of 
the  form,  to  prevent  one  end  of  the  roller  from  falling  down 
and  leaving  a  friar  at  the  opposite  end.  This  difficulty  may 
be  obviated  in  a  great  measure  by  imposing  the  form  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  bring  the  blank  pages  in  the  centre.  This 
mode  should  always  be  adopted  for  title-pages  and  other  light 
matter. 

Before  the  pressman  leaves  his  work,  he  covers  the  heap 
of  paper  by  first  turning  down  a  sheet  like  a  token-sheet,  to 
show  where  he  left  off,  and  then  putting  a  quantity  of  the 
worked-off  sheets  on  it,  and  a  paper-board  if  convenient. 
Laying  the  blanket  on  the  heap  after  leaving  off  work  is  a  bad 
custom.  If  the  paper  be  rather  dry,  it  will  be  well  to  put 
wet  wrappers  on  it,  after  damping  the  edges  well.  If  the  form 
be  clean,  he  puts  a  sheet  of  waste  paper  between  the  tympan 
and  frisket,  and  lays  them  down  on  the  form ;  if  it  be  dirty,  it 
must  be  rubbed  over  with  clean  ley,  and  several  waste  sheets 
pulled  on  it,  as  before  directed,  to  suck  the  dirty  ley  out  of  the 
cavities  of  the  letter.  On  his  return  to  work  in  the  morning, 
he  takes  care  to  wet  the  tympan,  provided  the  type  be  worn. 
If  there  should  be  any  pages  in  the  form  particularly  open, 
the  parts  of  the  tympan  where  they  fall  must  not  be  wetted. 

THE  LEY-TROUGH. 

THE  form  being  worked  off,  it  is  the  pressman's  duty  to 
wash  it  clean  from  every  particle  of  ink,  not  only  for  the 
cleanly  working  and  well  standing  of  the  letter  in  tlie  subse- 
quent composing,  but  to  save  his  own  time  in  making  ready 
when  the  same  letter  gets  to  press  again.  Many  an  hour  is 
lost  from  not  bestowing  a  minute  or  two  in  thoroughly  cleans- 
ing and  rinsing  the  form. 

For  this  purpose,  printing-offices  are  provided  with  a  ley- 
trough,  suspended  on  a  cross-frame,  and  swinging  by  iron 
ears  fi.xed  somewhat  out  of  the  precise  centre,  so  that  the 
gravity  of  the  trough  will  cause  it  to  fall  in  a  slanting  position 
forward.  This  trough  is  lined  with  lead,  the  top  front  edge 
being  guarded  from  the  pitching  of  the  forms  by  a  plate  of 


MAKING  READY.  265 

iron.  The  form  having  been  placed  in  the  trough,  on  its  side, 
the  pressman  takes  hold  of  the  rim  of  the  chase  by  the  hook, 
or  instrument  for  that  purpose,  and,  laying  it  gently  down, 
pours  the  ley  upon  it,  and  sluices  it  by  swinging  the  trough 
on  its  pivots  two  or  three  times  to  and  fro ;  then,  taking  the 
ley-brush,  he  applies  it  to  the  whole  form,  type,  furniture,  and 
chase ;  the  ley  is  then  let  out  into  a  receptacle,  and  the  form 
well  rinsed  with  clean  water,  by  swinging  the  trough  as  be- 
fore ;  the  form  is  then  lifted  out,  and  consigned  to  the  care  of 
the  compositor. 

The  ley  is  made  of  pot  or  pearl  ash,  or,  what  is  better,  of 
concentrated  ley.  A  large  earthen  jar  is  usually  chosen  for 
the  purpose ;  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ash  or  concentrated  ley 
is  added  to  the  water  to  make  it  bite  the  tongue  sharply  in 
tasting. 

The  ley-brush  is  made  large,  the  hairs  close,  fine,  and  long, 
in  order  not  to  injure  the  type,  while  sufficient  force  is  applied 
to  search  every  interstice  in  the  letter  where  the  ink  can  have 
insinuated  itself 

MAKING  READY  ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES. 

MAKE  clean  the  bed  of  the  press  and  the  impression  seg- 
ment of  the  cylinder.  Adjust  the  bearers  a  trifle  above 
ordinary  type  height.  See  that  the  impression  screws  have  an 
even  bearing  on  the  journals,  and  that  the  cylinder  fairly  meets 
the  bearers.     Select  a  suitable  tympan  or  impression  surface. 

The  tympan  may  be  the  India-rubber  cloth  which  is  fur- 
nished with  the  press,  a  thick  woollen  lapping  cloth  or  blanket, 
several  sheets  of  thick  calendered  printing  paper,  or  one  or 
more  smooth  and  hard  pasteboards.  Each  of  these  materials 
has  merits  not  to  be  found  in  any  other.  Upon  the  proper 
selection  of  the  tympan  the  presswork  in  great  measure  de- 
pends, and  the  pressman  should  be  thus  guided  in  making 
choice. 

A  pasteboard  tympan  is  most  suitable  for  wood-cuts,  for 
perfectly  new  type,  and  for  the  best  kinds  of  presswork.  It  is 
not  suitable  for  miscellaneous  work,  nor  for  heavy  forms,  nor 
mixed  old  and  new  type.  If  the  overlaying  is  properly  exe- 
cuted, a  pasteboard  tympan  will  enable  the  pressman  to  show 
a  sharper  edge  and  a  more  delicate  impression  of  the  type 


266  MAKING  READY 


than  can  be  possible  with  any  other,  and  it  will  wear  the  type 
less  than  any  other.  But  it  will  require  a  very  tedious  and 
careful  making  ready,  or  it  will  prove  very  destructive  to  type. 

A  woollen  blanket  is  best  adapted  for  old  stereotype  plates, 
for  v^ery  old  type  which  has  been  rounded  on  the  edges,  for 
posters  with  large  wood  type,  and  for  all  common  work  which 
requires  a  clear  but  dull  impression.  For  such  work  a  woollen 
blanket  will  enable  the  pressman  to  make  ready  a  form  more 
quickly  than  with  any  other  material ;  but  it  is  injurious  to 
new  type,  and  incapable  of  producing  a  fine  and  sharp  im- 
pression. 

Thick  paper  is  much  used  for  book-work.  It  also  answers 
well  for  script  circulars  and  leaded  forms.  It  will  not  answer 
so  well  for  mixed  old  and  new  type,  nor  for  table-work  with 
unequal  heights  of  brass  rule,  nor  for  mixed  large  and  small 
type.  It  will  prove  most  serviceable  for  the  average  of  light 
and  fine  presswork. 

The  India-rubber  cloth  combines  many  good  qualities  not 
found  in  other  tympans :  it  has  something  of  the  density  of 
the  pasteboard,  the  hardness  and  evenness  of  paper,  and  the 
flexibility  of  the  blanket,  combined  with  an  elasticity  pecu- 
liarly its  own.  It  will  compass  a  greater  variety  of  work  than 
any  other :  posters,  script  circulars,  news  and  book  forms, 
stereotype  plates,  and  old  or  new  type,  can  all  be  well  printed 
with  an  India-rubber  blanket.  When  it  is  intended  to  make 
one  tympan  answer  for  all  kinds  of  work,  the  India-rubber 
blanket  will  be  found  decidedly  superior  to  all  others;  but 
when  very  extra  presswork  is  wanted,  the  tympan  must  be 
specially  adapted  to  the  form  of  type. 

There  are  forms  ior  which  none  of  these  tympans  are  spe- 
cially suitable.  For  such  cases  careful  pressmen  combine  two 
or  more  together, — as  Welsh  fiannel  over  rubber,  or  thin  rub- 
ber over  pasteboard  or  under  paper.  These,  howev^er,  are 
exceptional  cases,  and  are  only  thus  combined  when  very 
good  presswork  is  wanted  from  imperfect  materials.  Careful 
observation  of  the  quality  of  the  impression  given  by  each 
style  of  tympan  will  teach  a  pressman  how  to  combine  to  the 
best  advantage.  As  it  requires  experience  and  discrimination, 
an  arljitrary  rule  cannot  be  given. 

Whatever  may  be  the  material  selected,  the  tympan  must 
be  stretched  very  tightly  over  the  cylinder.     All  labour  in  over- 


ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES.  267 

laying  is  but  thrown  away  if  this  is  not  carefully  attended  to. 
A  rubber  or  woollen  blanket  can  be  secured  at  one  end  of  the 
cylinder  by  small  hooks  projecting  inward,  while  it  may  be 
laced  tightly  with  saddler's  thread  at  the  other  end;  or,  by- 
sewing  on  that  end  of  the  blanket  a  piece  of  canvas,  it  may  be 
wound  tightly  around  the  reel,  and  kept  secure  by  the  pawl 
and  ratchet. 

But  paper  and  pasteboard  require  a  different  process, — viz. : 
Take  a  piece  of  Nonpareil  cherry  reglet  of  the  full  length  of 
the  cylinder.  Trim  down  the  paper  or  pasteboard  to  the  width 
of  the  bed  between  the  bearers,  but  leave  it  a  little  longer 
than  the  impression  segment  of  the  cylinder.  Then  crease  the 
pasteboard  at  a  uniform  distance  of  half  an  inch  from  the  nar- 
rower end,  and  lay  this  creased  part  on  the  flat  edge  of  the 
impression  segment  of  the  cylinder,  under  the  grippers.  Put 
the  reglet  over  this,  and  bring  down  the  clamps  hard  on  the 
reglet,  so  as  to  bind  all  securely.  When  this  is  done,  a  thin 
web  of  muslin  may  be  stretched  over  the  whole,  in  the  same 
way  in  which  a  blanket  is  laid  on,  and  rolled  up  tightly,  which 
will  prevent  any  slipping  of  the  board  or  of  the  overlays 
pasted  on  it. 

A  large  poster,  or  newspaper  form,  or  any  large  form  with 
old  type,  will  require  a  soft  roller  with  much  suction.  Book- 
work,  wood-cuts,  or  fine  job-work,  will  require  a  harder  roller, 
with  very  smooth,  elastic,  and  clinging  surface.  Coloured  inks 
are  best  printed  with  a  still  harder  roller  and  with  much  less 
suction.  All  rollers  should  be  perfectly  clean,  and  free  from 
cracks  or  holes.  The  suitableness  of  these  rollers  cannot  well 
be  explained  by  words :  such  a  knowledge  will  be  best  ac- 
quired by  observation  and  experience.  It  may,  however,  be 
necessary  to  state  that  one  roller  will  not  answer  for  all  styles 
of  presswork:  the  quality  of  the  work,  the  size  and  wear  of 
the  type,  and  the  speed  of  the  press,  must  control  the  press- 
man in  his  choice. 

Posters,  with  large  wood  type,  require  a  semi-fluid  ink,  but 
not  surcharged  with  oil.  Ordinary  news-work  requires  a  bet- 
ter grade,  more  tachy,  and  finely  ground.  Good  book-work 
should  have  a  stiffer-bodied  ink,  soft,  smooth,  and  with  little 
oil.  Job  ink,  which  is  made  expressly  for  presswork  on  dry 
paper,  should  be  used  only  for  such  work.  Book  and  job  inks 
are  not  convertible :   an  ink  for  wet  paper  will  not  work  well 

23* 


268  MAKIXG  READY 


on  dry  paper,  and  vice  versa.  Very  fine  pressvvork — such  as 
wood-cuts,  or  letter-press  upon  enamelled  paper — calls  for  an 
ink  impalpably  fine,  very  stiff,  of  brilliant  colour,  and  nearly 
or  absolutely  free  from  oil. 

Every  job-ofiice  should  keep  fotir  grades  of  ink, — news, 
book,  job,  and  wood-cut.  They  can  be  compounded  (if  no 
ink-manufacturer  is  near)  with  each  other,  or  reduced  with 
varnish  to  suit  any  form.  Good  presswork  is  impossible 
without  good  inks. 

Charge  the  ink-fountain  with  the  ink  selected,  and  keep  it 
well  covered,  to  protect  it  from  paper  dust.  Turn  down  the 
screws,  and  cut  off  all  the  ink  evenly.  When  the  form  is  ready, 
turn  on  the  ink  cautiously,  and  wait  for  ten  or  twelve  impres- 
sions before  again  altering  the  screws.  For  small  forms  and 
short  numbers  of  any  piece  of  presswork  in  coloured  ink  or 
extra  ink,  a  fountain  is  not  necessary.  The  ink  may  be  applied 
with  a  brayer  or  palette-knife. 

The  adjustment  of  the  margin  is  the  ne.\t  process.  Although 
type  can  be  printed  from  any  quarter  of  the  bed,  it  will  be 
found  most  judicious  to  lay  all  forms  close  to  the  back  part  of 
the  bed,  and  equidistant  between  the  bearers.  This  will  secure 
a  good  impression,  give  a  fair  average  margin  to  every  form, 
and  allow  the  full  use  of  the  bed  for  a  large  form,  without 
resetting  the  cylinder.  The  bed  and  cylinder  travel  together, 
and  the  grippers,  which  bring  down  the  sheet  to  the  form, 
should  barely  lap  over  the  back  part  of  the  bed.  So  long  as 
the  toothed  cylinder  wheel,  and  the  short  toothed  rack  on  the 
side  of  the  bed,  remain  undisturbed,  the  grippers  will  always 
pass  over  the  bed  in  exactly  the  same  place.  When  the  grip- 
pers are  in  this  position,  (slightly  lapping  over  the  back  of  the 
bed,)  take  measurement  of  the  distance  between  the  back 
edge  of  the  bed  and  the  point  of  one  of  the  nearest  grippers. 
With  a  piece  of  reglet  cut  a  gauge  exactly  corresponding  to 
this  measurement.  Let  no  form  be  laid  upon  the  press  until 
the  distance  between  the  type  and  the  edge  of  the  chase  tallies 
witli  the  gauge.  This  will  prevent  the  grippers  from  closing 
on  the  form  and  crushing  the  type.  If  the  chase  will  not  admit 
of  so  wide  a  margin,  or  if  an  extra  margin  is  wanted  on  the 
sheet,  put  a  piece  of  furniture  of  the  extra  width  behind  the 
chase:  the  margin  can  thus  be  increased  or  diminished  at 
pleasure. 


ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES.  269 

A  book  form  may  be  locked  up  in  a  chase  so  large,  with  the 
type  so  far  from  the  edge  of  the  chase,  that  the  grippers  will 
bring  down  the  sheet  in  such  a  position  that  it  will  be  printed 
with  the  margin  all  on  one  side.  To  remedy  this,  the  cylinder 
must  be  reset.  Proceed  thus.  Remove  the  screw  and  washer, 
and  draw  the  intermediate  wheel  out  of  gear,  loosen  screws  in 
the  gauge  rack,  then  turn  the  cylinder  to  the  point  required, 
connect  the  intermediate  wheel,  adjust  the  gauge  rack,  and 
screw  up  tight. 

The  press  having  been  adjusted,  next  examine  the  form  to 
be  printed.  Not  only  see  that  it  is  gauged  correctly,  but  also 
see  that  it  is  not  locked  up  too  tightly, — that  chase,  quoins, 
letter,  and  furniture  are  all  level,  and  lie  flat  upon  the  bed. 
If  the  form  springs,  the  quoins  must  be  slackened ;  if  this 
loosens  the  type  too  much,  the  justification  should  be  amended. 
Make  clean  the  type  by  rubbing  it  over  with  a  dry  brush.  The 
rollers  are  often  made  foul  and  the  colour  of  the  ink  changed 
by  dust  and  particles  of  dirt  clinging  to  the  type. 

Fasten  the  form  so  securely  on  the  bed  that  it  will  not  be 
moved  by  the  action  of  the  cylinder  or  the  rollers.  Take  a 
proof  on  its  own  paper,  using  very  little  ink.  Proceed  to 
adjust  the  drop  guides  so  as  to  bring  the  sheet  exactly  in  the 
right  position.  Push  out  the  iron  tongues  at  the  edge  of  the 
feed-board,  and  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  so  that 
they  will  equally  sustain  the  paper.  Slide  the  drop  guides 
along  the  rod  until  they  fall  squarely  over  the  tongues.  Set 
the  side  guide  so  that  it  will  give  a  true  margin  in  length  to 
the  sheet  to  be  printed.  Adjust  the  grippers  so  that  they  will 
seize  the  sheet  at  proper  intervals,  making  the  margin  exactly 
even  by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  drop  guides.  Then 
take  a  clean  proof  on  its  oivn  paper,  exactly  in  the  right  posi- 
tion, before  making  ready,  when  it  may  be  shown  to  the  reader. 
It  frequently  happens  that  an  error  in  the  margin,  or  an  imper- 
fection in  the  register,  is  thus  noticed ;  and  its  timely  discovery 
and  correction  before  overlaying  will  save  much  time  and 
trouble.  A  readable  proof  may  be  taken  before  overlaying, 
by  running  through  a  sheet  or  two  of  proof  paper.  Make 
register,  if  it  is  a  book  form,  before  underlaying. 

When  every  thing  has  been  found  correct,  then  proceed  to 
regulate  the  impression.  If  the  type  is  fair,  the  proof  should 
show  a  decently  uniform  impression;  but  if  the  form  is  large, 


2  70  MAKING  READY 


or  if  it  contains  old  and  new  or  large  and  small  type,  then  the 
proof  will  show  an  uneven  impression.  To  rectify  this  in- 
equality, pressmen  use  many  expedients. 

1.  By  lowering  the  bearers  and  putting  on  more  impression. 
This,  of  itself,  is  a  very  poor  way ;  for  it  wears  down  new  type 
in  order  to  show  the  face  of  the  old,  and  invariably  produces 
thick  and  coarse  presswork. 

2.  By  raising  the  low  type  to  a  proper  height  with  thick- 
nesses of  paper  under  them,  which  is  called  underlaying. 

3.  By  giving  additional  thickness  to  the  tympan  over  every 
part  of  the  form  which  shows  a  weak  impression,  which  is 
called  overlaying. 

It  is  very  rare  that  any  one  of  these  modes  will  prove  suffi- 
cient: all  should  be  used  in  conjunction.  When  the  larger 
part  of  the  proof-sheet  shows  a  weak  impression,  almost  ap- 
proaching illegibility,  then  more  impression  should  be  added. 
When  one  side  of  the  proof-sheet  shows  a  weak  impression, 
while  that  on  the  other  side  is  full  and  clear,  then  more  im- 
pression should  be  given  to  the  paler  side.  The  impression 
should  be  made  decently  uniform  before  any  attempt  at  over- 
laying or  underlaying.  But  the  bearers  should  follow  the 
impression  screws,  both  being  raised  and  lowered  together,  in 
order  to  secure  the  type  from  the  unimpeded  force  of  the 
impression  cylinder.  Not  only  should  the  bearers  be  of  even 
height,  but  the  cylinder  shaft  should  always  revolve  on  a  true 
level.  If  the  impression  screws  are  carelessly  used,  and  the 
bearers  are  rashly  raised  and  lowered,  this  even  bearing  will 
soon  be  lost;  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  good  impression  will 
be  much  increased,  and  the  press  will  receive  a  serious  injury. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  bearers  should  never  be  packed,  (by 
the  addition  of  cards,  as  is  usual  on  a  hand-press,)  for  it  strains 
the  cylinder  and  all  its  bearings  with  an  irregular  resistance. 
The  bearers  should  be  tampered  with  even  less  than  the  im- 
pression screws.  When  the  impression  screws  are  so  set  that 
tlie  cylinder  gives  a  fair  unif(jrm  impression,  they  have  done 
all  that  can  be  expected,  and  nothing  more  sliould  be  attempted 
by  them.  Sometimes  the  proof  may  show  that  a  cut,  or  a  line 
of  type,  or  a  set  of  brass  rules,  are  higher  than  any  other  mate- 
rial in  the  form.  But  the  impression  should  be  set  regardless 
of  this:  it  will  be  found  quicker  and  neater  to  reduce  the 
impression  on  one  or  two  such  high  lines,  by  cutting  out  the 


ON  C  YLINDER  PRESSES.  2  7 1 

tympan-sheet  over  them,  than  it  would  be  to  underlay  and 
bring  up  all  other  types  to  such  an  irregular  height.  Pitch  the 
impression  so  that  it  will  face  the  larger  portion  of  the  type, 
and  make  the  less  conform  to  the  greater.  Those  parts  which 
are  high  must  be  cut  out  of  the  tympan,  and  those  which  are 
low  should  be  raised  by  underlays,  and  all  inequalities  regu- 
lated by  overlays. 

When  any  part  of  the  form  is  very  low,  it  will  not  answer 
to  attempt  facing  it  with  overlays :  it  must  be  brought  up  to 
meet  the  inking  rollers  as  well  as  the  impression  cylinder. 
When  the  proof  shows  low  type,  cut  out  the  impression  of  it, 
raise  the  form,  and  paste  it  over  the  feet  of  the  letter.  If  some 
types  are  high  and  some  are  low,  make  proper  distinction,  and 
carefully  avoid  increasing  the  height  of  any  type  or  rule  which 
seems  to  have  a  full  impression.  Pursue  the  same  course 
when  a  marked  depression  appears  in  the  centre,  or  a  dwindling 
impression  at  the  edges.  Cut  out  that  section  which  is  light, 
and  affix  it  to  the  defective  part.  If  the  impression  dwindles 
in  any  part,  the  underlays  must  be  cut  of  irregular  thickness 
to  suit  the  tapering  off  of  the  impression.  Cut  out  an  under- 
lay from  the  edge  where  the  impression  begins  to  fade ;  then 
cut  another  of  smaller  size  where  it  is  utterly  illegible;  paste 
one  over  the  other,  laying  them  carefully  in  their  proper  posi- 
tions, and  then  paste  them  all  on  the  bottom  of  the  form, 
where  it  is  needed,  taking  care  to  lay  the  smallest  underlay 
nearest  the  bed.  This  will  restore  the  type  to  a  proper  level, 
and  the  next  proof  should  show  a  uniform  impression.  The 
same  plan  will  answer  for  a  low  corner.  Use  as  little  paste  as 
possible,  thin  and  free  from  lumps.  Be  careful  that  the  under- 
lays are  laid  on  smoothly,  without  fold  or  wrinkle.  Cut  all 
underlays  from  a  proof;  for  the  proof  serves  as  a  guide  both 
in  cutting  and  in  affixing  to  the  form. 

Underlaying  should  not  be  done  to  any  great  extent  upon  a 
cylinder  press.  It  is  a  valuable  means  of  bringing  up  an  old 
line  of  type,  a  hollow,  or  a  low  corner.  The  underlays  of  any 
type  form  should  not  constitute  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
surface ;  if  more  than  this  is  attempted,  they  will  rarely  ever 
fail  to  work  up  the  quadrates  and  furniture.  The  action  of 
the  quickly  moving  cylinder  upon  a  form  of  type  underlaid 
with  yielding  paper,  must  create  a  spring  and  a  rocking  of  all 
the  materials  in  the  chase. 


272  MAKING  READY 


Of  all  materials,  old  stereotype  plates  need  underlays  most, 
as  they  are  usually  very  irregular  in  height.  Thin  card  or 
pasteboard  will  be  found  preferable  to  paper  for  the  underlay- 
ing of  plates  secured  on  wood  bodies.  When  the  plates  are 
on  patent  blocks,  always  underlay  between  the  plate  and  the 
block.  Always  cut  the  underlay  for  a  plate  less  in  size  than 
the  faint  impression  would  seem  to  require.  This  will  allow 
for  the  spring  of  the  plate.  If  it  is  cut  of  full  size,  the  next 
impression  will  disappoint  the  pressman,  by  being  much  harder 
at  the  edges  than  he  intended.  Never  attempt  to  build  up  a 
type  form  to  a  proper  impression  entirely  or  chiefly  by  under- 
laying. 

Underlays  should  be  put  under  all  large  and  bold-faced 
types  when  used  with  much  smaller  types,  so  as  to  raise  them 
above  the  level  of  the  others.  This  is  needed  to  give  it  closer 
rolling,  extra  supply  of  ink,  and  that  extra  force  of  impression 
to  transfer  the  ink  to  paper  which  all  large  types  require. 

When  the  type  has  been  so  levelled  by  underlays  that  all 
parts  receive  proper  bearing  from  the  inking  rollers,  and  when 
the  cylinder  has  a  corresponding  even  impression,  then  over- 
laying may  be  commenced.  For  ordinary  news,  posters,  or 
job-work,  overlaying  may  be  entirely  unnecessary ;  the  tapes 
and  fly  may  be  set,  and  the  printing  of  the  form  may  proceed 
without  further  delay.  But  fine  press-work  cannot  be  done 
without  overlays.  Underlays  are  chiefly  valuable  for  securing 
an  even  impression;  while  overlays  are  indispensable  for  giv- 
ing delicacy  and  finish  to  that  impression. 

To  overlay  a  form  properly,  the  tympan  should  be  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  thin,  smooth,  and  hard  paper,  stretched  tightly. 
Then  take  a  pale  impression  on  the  tympan-sheet,  and  also 
run  through  the  press  two  or  three  proofs  on  thin  and  hard 
paper.  Examine  the  proofs  carefully  on  both  face  and  back. 
If  any  brass  rules  or  letters  appear  too  high,  cut  them  out  of 
the  tympan-sheet  in  one  or  two  thicknesses,  as  their  varying 
height  may  require.  Go  over  the  whole  proof,  examining 
every  line  carefully,  and,  by  cutting  out,  reduce  the  impres- 
sion of  all  projecting  letters  to  a  uniform  standard.  For  this, 
as  for  all  other  work  on  overlays,  use  a  very  sharp  knife  with 
a  thin  point,  and  cut  on  a  smooth  surface,  so  tliat  there  will  be 
no  dragged  or  torn  edge  to  the  cut. 

The  next  step  should  be  to  raise  the  impression  <jf  lliose 


ON  CYLINDER  PRESSES.  273 

parts  of  the  form  when  the  type  appears  dull  or  weak.  Cut 
out  carefully,  and  paste  the  overlays  over  the  tympan  smoothly. 
Overlays  are  worse  than  useless  if  they  are  not  laid  on  firmly 
and  smoothly,  as  the  slightest  bagginess  will  cause  slur  or 
mackle.  If,  by  accident,  the  tympan-sheets  or  overlays  should 
bag  or  wrinkle,  tear  them  off,  and  commence  anew. 

Cut  out  and  overlay  the  more  prominent  parts  first ;  then 
try  another  impression,  and  from  that  cut  new  overlays  for 
minor  defects.  Thus  proceed  until  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
even  impression  is  obtained. 

With  common  work  it  will  be  sufficient  to  cut  overlays  in 
masses,  as  pages  or  parts  of  pages ;  but  with  fine  work  every 
line  and  letter  needs  examination,  and  letters  and  parts  of 
single  letters  are  often  overlaid  by  careful  pressmen.  When 
the  pressman  is  expert  at  making  ready,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  he  should  take  a  new  impression  with  every  successive 
set  of  overlays.  Many  pressman  take  a  dozen  proofs  of  a  form 
on  different  styles  of  paper,  and  proceed  to  cut  out  and  over- 
lay on  one  of  the  proofs,  and  finally  paste  this  proof  on  the 
tympan.  But  this  boldness  and  precision  can  be  acquired  only 
by  long  practice.  It  is  better  for  the  young  pressman  to  feel 
his  way  step  by  step. 

The  Impression. — A  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among  good 
printers  as  to  the  proper  force  of  the  impression :  by  some  a 
heavy  and  solid  indentation  of  the  paper  is  considered  neces- 
sary ;  while  others  insist  that  an  impression  which  does  not 
indent  the  paper  is  preferable.  But  the  indentation  of  the 
paper  is  no  test  of  the  force  of  the  impression.  A  light  impres- 
sion against  a  woollen  blanket  will  show  more  forcibly  than  a 
strong  impression  against  a  paper  or  a  pasteboard  tympan. 

Type  is  worn  out  not  so  much  by  the  direct  impression  of 
the  platen  or  cylinder  on  the  flat  face  of  a  form,  as  by  a  grind- 
ing or  rounding  impression  on  the  edges  of  the  type,  caused 
by  the  forcing  of  the  tympan  between  the  lines  and  around 
the  corners  of  every  letter.  Every  fount  of  worn-out  type, 
whether  from  cylinder  or  platen  press,  has  suffered  less  from 
a  reduction  in  height  than  from  a  rounding  of  the  edges.  When 
the  type  is  new  and  the  tympan  hard  and  smooth,  the  impres- 
sion can  be  made  so  flat  that  the  type  will  not  round  at  the 
edges,  and  the  impression  will  not  show  on  the  paper.  But  this 
cannot  be  done  with  old  type  or  with  a  soft  tympan :  the  impres- 


2  74  MAKING  READY. 


sion  must  be  regulated  to  suit  the  tympan.  On  fine  work,  a 
rounding  impression  should  be  avoided,  as  it  not  only  destroys 
type,  but  also  thickens  the  hair-line  and  wears  off  the  ceriphs. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  paper  should  barely  meet  the 
type:  there  must  be  sufficient  force  in  the  impression  to  trans- 
fer the  ink  from  type  to  paper.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  im- 
pression, it  will  be  necessary  to  carry  much  ink  on  the  rollers ; 
and  this  produces  two  evils :  the  type  is  clogged  with  ink,  and 
the  form  becomes  foul;  too  much  ink  is  transferred  to  the 
paper,  which  smears  and  sets  off  for  want  of  force  sufficient  to 
impress  it  in  the  paper.  Distinction  must  be  made  between  a 
light  and  weak  impression  and  a  firm  and  eveti  impression. 
The  latter  should  be  secured  even  if  the  paper  is  indented ; 
though  that  is  not  always  necessary.  But  a  form  of  old  type, 
a  poster,  or  other  solid  form,  must  have  a  heavy  impression,  or 
else  a  very  tedious  and  careful  making-ready. 

To  set  Neiv  Tapes. — Pass  the  tape  around  and  close  to  the 
cylinder.  Lap  it  over  one  of  the  tape  pulleys,  and  then  pass 
it  around  the  small  guide  pulley  on  the  shaft  above.  To  in- 
crease its  tightness,  throw  up  the  guide  pulley  from  the  shaft, 
and  set  the  binding  screw  more  tightly.  All  these  pulleys  are 
movable  on  their  shafts,  and  distance  between  them  may  be 
altered  at  pleasure.  Let  the  tapes  rest  upon  the  outer  margin 
of  the  sheet,  and  see  that  the  overlays  on  the  tympan  over 
which  the  tapes  pass  are  of  equal  thickness ;  if  not  of  equal 
thickness,  the  sheet  will  wrinkle. 

To  set  the  Fly. — Run  through  a  sheet  of  the  paper  to  be 
printed,  and  let  it  run  down  the  fly  so  far  that  it  is  barely  held 
by  the  lly  pulleys.  Then  set  the  cam  which  works  the  fly,  so 
that  its  point  just  clears  the  small  friction  roller  on  the  shaft, 
and  it  will  throw  down  the  sheet  correctly.  Tighten  the  spring 
according  to  the  size  of  the  sheet,  and  set  the  spring  crank  so 
that  it  will  prevent  the  fly  from  striking  too  hard  on  the  table. 

It  will  be  seen  that  good  presswork  does  not  depend  entirely 
upon  the  press,  nor  yet  upon  the  workman  or  the  materials. 
Nor  will  a  superiority  in  any  one  point  compensate  for  a  de- 
ficiency in  another:  the  newest  type  will  suffer  from  a  poor 
roller,  and  the  most  careful  making-ready  will  be  of  no  avail 
if  poor  ink  is  used.  It  is  necessary  that  all  the  materials 
should  be  of  the  best  kind, — that  they  should  be  well  adapted 
to  each  other,  and  fitly  used.     Although  a  good  workman  can 


FINE  HAND-PRESSIVORK.  275 

do  much  with  insufficient  materials,  there  are  cases  where  a 
neglect  to  comply  with  one  condition  is  equal  to  a  neglect 
of  all/i' 

FINE  HAND-PRESSWORK. 

FINE  presswork  is  the  art  of  printing  perfect  impressions 
from  the  surface  of  type  or  engravings  in  relief:  that  is, 
the  subject  transferred  to  paper  should  be  an  impression  from 
the  surface,  and  the  surface  only,  of  the  types  or  engraved 
lines,  of  such  a  tone  as  to  produce  all  the  effect  of  which  the 
subject  is  capable,  without  either  superfluity  or  deficiency  of 
colour. 

The  press  ought  to  be  in  the  best  condition ;  otherwise  it 
will  be  impossible  to  get  an  equal  impression  without  much 
trouble  and  loss  of  time.  The  joints  of  the  tympan  should 
not  have  any  play,  or  the  correctness  of  the  register  will  be 
affected,  and  slurs  and  doubles  be  caused. 

The  parchments  on  the  tympans  should  be  thin,  and  of  a 
uniform  thickness,  and  stretched  on  the  tympans  so  as  not  to 
be  flaccid.  On  account  of  its  thinness,  smoothness,  and  uni- 
formity, silk- is  probably  preferable. 

The  face  of  the  platen  ought  to  be  a  true  plane,  and  parallel 
to  the  press-stone,  or  table. 

The  advantage  of  having  a  good  press  is  unavailing  for  the 
production  of  fine  work  if  the  types  are  much  worn ;  for  it  is 
impossible  to  produce  a  sharp,  clear  impression  when  the  type 
is  worn  and  the  fine  lines  are  rounded  by  much  use.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  roundness  of  the  letter,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
a  thick  blanket  in  the  tympan  to  bring  up  the  type ;  thus 
producing  a  gross  and  irregular  impression  of  more  than  the 
surface. 

Ink  for  fine  work  should  be  characterized  by  the  following 
peculiarities : — 

Intenseness  of  colour. 

Impalpability. 

Covering  the  surface  perfectly  of  the  type  or  engraving. 

Quitting  the  surface  of  the  type  or  engraving  when  the 
paper  is  pressed  on  it,  and  adhering  to  the  paper. 

Not  smearing  after  it  is  printed. 

(')  R.  Hoe  &  Co.'s  Catalogue. 
24 


276  FINE  HAXD-PRESSWORK. 

Complete  retention  of  colour. 

Ink  ought  to  be  reduced  to  an  impalpable  smoothness, 
either  in  a  mill  or  on  a  stone  with  a  muUer.  This  is  essential, 
as  the  process  gives  it  the  next  quality, — that  of  completely 
yet  very  thinly  covering  the  surface  of  the  type  or  the  lines  of 
the  engraving,  and  insuring  an  even  and  perfect  appearance 
to  the  impression  on  the  paper.  Another  important  requisite 
is,  that  the  ink  shall  not  only  cover  the  surface  of  the  lines  on 
the  paper  printed,  but  that  it  shall  also  quit  the  face  of  the 
type  or  engraving  and  leave  it  quite  clean  when  the  paper  is 
impressed  on  it,  and  attach  itself  to  the  paper,  so  as  to  give 
a  perfect  impression  of  the  subject  represented,  without  the 
colour  of  the  paper  appearing  through  the  ink;  and  that  this 
peculiarity  of  quitting  the  type  or  engraving  and  becoming 
attached  to  the  paper  shall  continue  the  same  through  any 
number  of  impressions,  without  any  accumulation  of  ink  on 
the  surface  printed  from.  After  having  obtained  these  results, 
and  when  the  printing  is  as  perfect  as  it  can  be  made  by  work- 
manship, something  more  is  requisite, — viz. :  that  the  ink  shall 
not  smear  on  being  slightly  rubbed,  and  that  it  shall  retain 
its  colour  and  appearance  without  spreading  at  the  edges  or 
tinging  the  paper. 

The  rollers  should  be  in  good  condition;  otherwise  the 
pressman  may  exert  his  skill  in  vain,  with  a  great  loss  of  time 
and  waste  of  paper. 

The  quality  of  the  paper  is  of  great  consequence  in  fine 
printing;  but  it  is  frequently  overlooked  by  the  printer's 
employers,  who  are  apt  to  pay  more  attention  to  a  showy 
appearance  and  a  low  price  than  to  quality. 

The  best  paper  for  printing  on  is  that  which  is  made  of  fine 
linen  rags  and  moderately  sized,  without  the  use  of  acids  in 
bleaching,  and  witiiout  being  adulterated  with  cotton  rags : 
this  paper  takes  water  kindly,  is  easily  got  into  good  con- 
dition, receives  a  good  impression,  is  durable,  preserves  its 
colour,  and  does  not  act  upon  the  ink. 

The  use  of  cotton  rags,  the  introduction  of  gypsum  into 
the  manufacture  of  fine  and  other  papers,  the  application  of 
acids  and  bleaching  powders  to  improve  the  colour  and  pro- 
duce apparently  good  paper  from  an  inferior  staple, — these 
form  the  grand  hinderances  to  the  American  printer  in  his 
efforts  to  equal  or  excel  foreign  productions.     Hence  it  is  that 


FINE  HAND-PRESSWORK.  277 

works  printed  in  tliis  country  are  less  valued  than  those  from 
the  English  press,  which  are  printed  on  paper  of  fine  fabric, 
made  mostly  of  linen  rags,  and  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  a 
fine  ink. 

A  pressman  should,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  entire  routine  of  presswork ;  in  addition  to 
which,  to  form  his  judgment,  he  should  examine  the  most 
splendid  productions  of  the  press,  and  study  them  as  patterns 
of  workmanship. 

In  making  ready,  it  must  be  evident  that,  when  a  clear, 
sharp  impression  is  wanted,  the  pressure  should  be  on  the 
surface  only.  Of  course  the  tympan  ought  not  to  be  very  soft, 
neither  should  a  woollen  blanket  be  used:  the  most  perfect 
impression  will  be  obtained  when  fine  thick  paper  alone  is 
placed  in  the  tympans ;  and  even  of  this  article  but  few  thick- 
nesses should  be  employed. 

After  an  impression  is  printed,  the  pressman  examines  if  it 
be  uniform  throughout;  if  it  be, — which  is  very  rarely  the 
case, — he  goes  on  with  the  work ;  if  not,  he  proceeds  to  over- 
lay, in  order  to  produce  regularity  of  pressure  and  of  colour 
over  the  whole  form.  Wherever  the  impression  is  weak  he 
pastes  a  bit  of  thin,  smooth  paper,  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
imperfect  part,  on  the  tympan-sheet ;  he  then  pulls  another 
impression,  to  examine  the  effect  of  his  overlays,  and  con- 
tinues to  add  to  them  where  wanted,  till  the  pressure  of  the 
platen  is  the  same  in  every  part  and  the  impression  is  of  a 
uniform  shade  of  colour. 

If  the  impression  come  off"  too  strong  in  parts,  or  at  the 
edges  or  corners  of  the  pages  or  on  the  head-lines,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  cut  away  the  tympan-sheet  in  those  parts,  and, 
if  that  does  not  ease  the  pressure  sufficiently,  to  cut  away  the 
same  parts  from  one  or  more  of  the  sheets  that  are  within  the 
tympans. 

It  is  generally  preferable  to  overlay  on  a  sheet  of  stout 
smooth  paper  inside  the  tympan,  particularly  where  the  same 
press  does  the  whole  or  great  part  of  the  work :  this  sheet  is  cut 
to  fit  the  interior  of  the  tympan,  so  as  not  to  slip  about,  and 
has  overlays  pasted  on  it  where  wanted,  to  bring  up  the  im- 
pression till  it  is  very  nearly  equal.  In  all  succeeding  sheets 
it  saves  the  pressman  a  great  deal  of  time,  as  he  will  be  certain 
that  when  he  pulls  a  sheet  of  another  form  of  the  same  work 


278  FIXE  HAND-PRESSWORK. 

it  will  be  nearly  right,  and  he  will  only  have  to  place  thin  over- 
lays on  occasional  parts  to  make  the  impression  perfect. 

It  is  necessary,  where  short  pages  occur  in  a  form,  to  have 
bearers  to  protect  their  bottom  lines  and  the  edges  of  the  ad- 
joining pages.  These  may  be  of  double  pica  reglet,  pasted  on 
the  frisket,  so  as  to  bear  on  some  part  of  the  furniture  or 
chase ;  but  bearers  made  to  the  height  of  the  types  are  better, 
when  they  can  be  used. 

It  happens  occasionally  that  the  tympan  causes  the  paper 
to  touch  the  form  partially  on  being  turned  down,  and  occa- 
sions slurs.  This  may  occur  from  the  parchment  being  slack 
or  the  paper  being  thin  and  soft.  To  prevent  this  incon- 
venience, it  is  customary  to  roll  up  a  piece  of  thick  paper  and 
paste  it  on  the  frisket  adjoining  the  part.  Many  pressmen 
prefer  pieces  of  cork  cut  to  about  the  thickness  of  double  pica, 
and  pasted  on  the  frisket. 

In  working  the  white  paper,  instead  of  pins  stuck  into  the 
tympan,  to  prevent  the  paper  slipping,  a  duck's  bill  (a  tongue 
cut  in  a  piece  of  stout  paper)  is  frequently  used :  it  is  pasted  to 
the  tympan  at  the  bottom  of  the  tympan-sheet,  and  the  tongue 
projects  in  front  of  it;  indeed,  the  tympan-sheet  appears  to 
rest  in  it.  The  bottom  of  each  sheet  is  placed  behind  this 
tongue,  which  supports  it  while  the  tympan  is  turned  down. 

The  rollers  should  be  kept  clean,  but  should  not  be  too 
moist,  as  this  will  prevent  the  ink  from  distributing  equally 
over  them,  and  from  covering  evenly  the  surface  of  the  types 
or  engraving;  nor  should  they  be  too  dry,  as  in  that  case  they 
will  not  dispose  of  the  ink  smoothly  enough  to  produce  a  fine 
impression,  neither  will  they  retain  particles  of  dirt  on  their 
surface,  but  it  will  part  with  them  to  the  form,  thus  causing 
picks. 

The  ink  ought  to  be  rubbed  out  thinly  and  equally  on  the 
ink-block,  so  that  when  it  is  taken  it  may  be  diffused  smoothly 
over  the  surface  of  the  rollers.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  rubbing 
the  ink  out  on  the  block  with  the  brayer,  and  to  distribute  the 
roller  almost  constantly;  the  continual  friction  ])roduces  a 
small  degree  of  warmth,  wiiich  is  of  advantage,  particularly 
in  cold  weather. 

As  uniformity  of  colour  is  requisite  for  beauty  in  printing, 
where  the  form  is  large  the  pressman  should  take  ink  for 
every  impre.ssion :  this  may  be  thought  troublesome,  but  it  is 


FINE  HAND-PRESSIVORK.  279 

advantageous  in  producing  regularity  of  colour.  It  is  un- 
pleasant to  see  in  a  fine  book  two  pages  that  face  each  other 
differing  in  colour, — the  one  a  full  black,  surcharged  with  ink, 
the  other  deficient  in  quantity  and  of  a  gray  colour ;  yet  this 
must  happen  when,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  three  or  four 
sheets  are  printed  with  one  taking  of  ink. 

In  fine  books,  particularly  where  the  paper  is  large  and 
heavy  and  the  type  large,  set-off  sheets  are  used  to  interleave 
the  whole  impression  while  working:  these  remain  till  the 
printed  paper  is  taken  down  from  the  poles  by  the  warehouse- 
man. These  set-ofif  sheets  are  put  in  when  the  white  paper  is 
working,  and  moved  from  one  heap  to  the  other  during  the 
working  of  the  reiteration.  They  prevent  the  ink  from  setting 
off  from  one  sheet  to  another  while  they  are  newly  printed, 
from  the  weight  of  the  paper. 

To  secure  uniformity  of  impression,  the  pull  should  be  so 
adjusted  in  the  first  instance  as  to  give  a  proper  degree  of 
pressure  on  the  form  when  the  bar  is  pulled  home;  then, 
checking  the  bar,  it  should  be  allowed  to  rest  in  that  position 
during  a  short  pause. 

It  will  be  perceived  that,  to  produce  presswork  of  a  highly 
superior  character,  great  expense  and  much  time  are  required ; 
and  that  it  is  requisite  to  have  a  good  press  in  good  condi- 
tion ;  to  have  new  types,  or  types  whose  faces  are  not  rounded 
by  wear ;  to  have  good  rollers  in  good  condition ;  that  the  ink 
should  be  strong,  of  a  full  black  colour,  that  it  will  not  fade 
nor  stain  the  paper,  and  ground  so  fine  as  to  be  impalpable; 
the  paper  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  made  of  linen  rags, 
and  not  bleached  by  means  of  acids  or  bleaching  powders, 
which  have  a  tendency  to  decompose  the  ink;  the  rolling 
should  be  carefully  and  well  done ;  the  face  of  the  type  should 
be  completely  covered  with  ink,  without  any  superfluity,  so  as 
to  produce  a  full  colour;  and  the  pull  should  be  so  regulated 
as  to  have  a  slow  and  great  pressure,  and  to  pause  at  its 
maximum  in  order  to  fix  the  ink  firmly  upon  the  paper. 
These  particulars  observed,  with  nothing  but  paper  in  the 
tympans,  perfect  impressions  of  the  face  alone  of  the  type 
will  be  obtained,  and  a  splendid  book  will  be  produced  in  the 
best  style  of  printing.^ ^' 


0)  Adapted  from  Savage. 
24* 


28o  PRIXTING   WOOD-CUTS. 


PRINTING  WOOD-CUTS. 

A  SINGLE  block,  when  imposed  in  a  large  chase,  may 
spring  out  of  the  chase  while  being  inked,  from  the 
quantity  of  furniture  about  it.  A  good  plan  is  to  impose  it  in 
a  job-chase,  and  to  impose  this  chase  in  a  larger  one :  this  will 
cause  it  to  lie  flatter  on  the  press  and  firmer  in  the  rolling,  the 
large  chase  being  secured  firmly  on  the  press  by  quoins  and 
the  corner  irons. 

Before  pulling  the  first  impression,  the  workman  should 
see  that  the  surface  of  the  cut  is  perfectly  clear  from  particles 
of  dirt,  and  that  no  pin  or  lump  of  paste  is  on  the  tympan. 
He  ought  then  to  pull  very  gently,  or  he  may  injure  some  of 
the  fine  lines  of  the  engraving. 

Neither  the  pressure  nor  the  impression  of  an  engraving  on 
wood  should  be  uniformly  equal :  if  it  be,  the  effect  intended 
to  be  produced  by  the  artist  will  fail ;  and,  instead  of  light, 
middle  tint,  and  shade,  an  impression  will  be  produced  that 
possesses  none  of  them  in  perfection :  some  parts  will  be  too 
hard  and  black,  while  other  parts  will  have  neither  pressure 
nor  colour  enough,  nor  any  of  tlie  mildness  of  the  middle  tint, 
which  ought  to  pervade  a  large  portion  of  an  engra\ing,  and 
on  which  the  eye  reposes  after  viewing  the  strong  lights  and 
the  deep  shades. 

To  produce  the  desired  effect,  great  nicety  and  patience  are 
required  in  the  pressman:  a  single  thickness  of  thin  India 
paper,  (the  best  for  overlaying,)  with  the  edges  scraped  down, 
is  frequently  required  over  very  small  parts.  The  overlay 
should  never  be  cut  at  the  edges ;  but,  even  where  great  deli- 
cacy of  shape  is  not  required,  it  should  be  torn  into  the  form 
wanted:  this  reduces  the  thickness  of  the  edges,  and  causes 
the  additional  pressure  to  blend  with  the  surrounding  parts 

As  particular  parts  of  the  impression  will  frequently  come 
up  too  strong,  and  other  parts  too  weak,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
take  out  from  between  the  tympans  a  thickness  of  paper  and 
add  an  additional  tympan-sheet,  cutting  away  the  parts  that 
come  off  too  hard,  and  scraping  down  the  edges.  Scraping 
away  half  the  thickness  of  a  tympan-sheet  in  small  parts  that 
recjuire  to  be  a  little  lightened  will  improve  the  impression. 
The  light  parts  require  little  pressure;  but  the  depths  should 
be  brought  up  so  as  to  produce  a  full  and  firm  impression. 


PRINTING   WOOD-CUTS.  281 

If  a  block  be  hollow  on  the  surface,  underlaying  the  hollow 
part  will  bring  up  the  impression  better  than  overlaying  it,  at 
least  so  nearly  that  only  a  thickness  or  two  of  paper  will  be 
needed  as  overlays.  If  a  block  be  too  low,  it  is  better  to  raise 
it  to  the  proper  height  by  underlays  than  to  use  overlays ;  as 
the  latter  act  in  some  measure  as  blankets,  and  are  pressed 
into  the  interstices,  rendering  the  lines  thicker  than  in  the 
engraving. 

It  will  be  necessary  sometimes,  when  the  surface  of  the 
block  is  very  uneven,  to  tear  away  parts  of  the  paper  in  the 
tympan,  to  equalize  the  impression  where  it  is  too  hard. 

The  pressman  will  find  it  convenient  to  pull  a  few  impres- 
sions, while  he  is  making  ready,  on  soiled  or  damaged  India 
paper.  Out  of  these  he  can  cut  overlays  to  the  precise  shape 
and  size  wanted,  which  are  always  necessary  when  great  accu- 
racy is  required  in  overlaying  particular  portions.  He  should 
be  provided  with  a  sharp  penknife  and  a  pair  of  good  small 
scissors.  A  fine  sharp  bodkin  and  a  needle  or  two,  to  take 
out  picks,  are  also  needful ;  but  he  should  be  particularly  care- 
ful so  to  use  them  that  he  do  no  injury.  The  best  way  is,  to 
draw  the  bodkin  or  needle  point  cautiously  in  the  direction  of 
the  lines. 

Engravings  in  vignette  form  require  great  attention  to 
keep  the  edges  light  and  clear,  and  in  general  it  is  necessary 
to  scrape  away  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  paper  in  order  to 
lighten  the  impression  and  keep  it  clean:  the  edges  being 
irregular  and  straggling,  they  are  likely  to  come  off"  too  hard. 
Bearers  type-high  placed  beside  the  block  will  be  found  ad- 
vantageous ;  if  they  cannot  be  used,  pieces  of  reglet,  pasted  on 
the  fr^sket  in  the  usual  way,  and  taking  a  bearing  on  the  fur- 
niture, must  be  substituted ;  but  the  high  bearer  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred where  it  can  be  adopted.  The  bearers  equalize  the 
pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  engraving,  and  protect  the 
edges  from  the  severity  of  the  pull,  which  is  always  injurious 
to 'the  delicacy  of  the  external  lines.  They  also  render  the 
subject  more  manageable,  by  enabling  the  pressman  to  add  to 
or  diminish  the  pressure  on  particular  parts,  so  as  to  produce 
the  desired  effect. 

When  great  delicacy  of  impression  is  required  in  a  vignette, 
it  will  be  found  beneficial,  after  the  engraving  is  inked,  to  roll 
the  extremities  with  a  small  roller  without  ink :  this  will  not 


PRINTIXG   WOOD-CUTS. 


only  take  away  any  superfluity  of  ink,  but  will  prevent  picks, 
and  give  lightness  and  softness  to  the  edges,  particularly  where 
the  effect  of  distance  is  required. 

If  the  extremities  are  engraved  much  lighter  than  the  Central 
parts,  underlays  should  be  pasted  on  the  middle  of  the  block, 
which  will  give  a  firmer  impression  to  the  central  parts  of  the 
subject.  It  would  save  trouble  and  aid  in  getting  a  good  im- 
pression if  the  block  were  engraved  a  little  rounded  on  the 
face. 

When  highly  finished  engravings  on  wood  are  worked 
separately,  woollen  cloth,  however  fine,  should  never  be  used 
for  blankets,  as  it  causes  too  much  impression;  a  sheet  or 
two  of  hard  smooth  paper  between  the  tympans  is  better; 
sometimes  even  a  piece  of  glazed  pasteboard  is  used  inside 
the  outer  tympan.  The  parchments  ought  to  be  in  good  con- 
dition, stretched  tight,  of  a  smooth  surface,  thin,  and  of  regular 
thickness,  so  as  to  enable  the  pressman  to  obtain  an  impres- 
sion as  nearly  as  possible  from  the  surface  only  of  the  en- 
graved lines. 

The  rollers  must  be  kept  in  perfect  order ;  and  the  press- 
man should  be  very  particular  in  taking  ink  and  inking  the 
block.     He  ought  to  use  the  best  ink  that  can  be  procured. 

When  a  wood-cut  left  on  the  press  all  night  has  become 
warped,  lay  it  on  its  face  upon  the  imposing-stone,  with  a  few 
thicknesses  of  damp  paper  underneath  it,  and  place  over  it 
the  flat  side  of  a  planer,  with  sufficient  weight  upon  it:  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  the  block  will  be  restored  to  its  original 
flatness.  This  method  is  preferable  to  steeping  the  block  in 
water;  as  the  steeping  swells  the  lines  of  the  engraving,  and, 
consequently,  affects  the  impression.  To  preserve  the  original 
effect  of  the  cut  as  it  came  from  the  hands  of  the  artist,  the 
block  should  never  be  wet  with  water;  and,  when  it  has  been 
worked  in  a  form  with  types,  it  should  be  taken  out  before 
the  form  is  washed. 

To  prevent  warping  during  the  dinner-hour  or  the  night, 
turn  the  tympan  down  upon  the  form,  run  the  carriage  in,, 
and,  pulling  the  bar-handle  home,  fasten  it  so  that  it  will 
remain  in  this  position  during  the  interim. 

However  long  bo.xwood  may  be  kept  in  the  log,  it  will 
always  twist  and  warp  when  cut  into  slices  for  engraving,  on 
account  of  fresh  surfaces  being  exposed  to  the  air.    Large 


CARD  PRINTING.  283 


blocks  may  be  restored  to  their  flatness  in  the  course  of  a 
night  by  laying  them  on  a  plane  surface,  with  the  hollow  side 
downward,  without  any  weight  on  them. 

A  fine  engraving  on  wood  should  never  be  brushed  over 
with  ley :  the  best  method  is  to  wipe  the  ink  off  with  a  fine 
sponge  damped  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and,  if  it  get  foul  in 
working,  clean  it  with  a  soft  brush  and  spirits  of  turpentine ; 
then  wipe  the  surface  dry  and  pull  two  or  three  impressions 
on  dry  waste  paper.  Spirits  of  turpentine  take  off  the  ink 
quicker,  and  affect  the  wood  less,  than  any  other  article.  The 
facility  with  which  the  block  is  again  brought  into  a  working 
state  more  than  compensates  for  the  trifling  additional  ex- 
pense incurred. 

When  a  few  proofs  only  are  wanted  from  a  small  engraving, 
good  impressions  may  be  obtained  with  little  trouble  on  dry 
India  paper,  with  about  six  thicknesses  of  the  same  sort  of 
paper  laid  over  it,  and  pulled  without  the  tympan.  If  proofs 
are  wanted  from  large  ones,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to 
put  the  India  paper  for  a  few  minutes  into  a  heap  of  damp 
paper. 

To  do  full  justice  to  an  engraving,  the  pressman  should  get 
a  good  impression  from  the  engraver  and  place  it  before  him 
as  a  pattern,  and  then  arrange  the  overlays,  &c.  till  he  pro- 
duce a  fac-simile  in  effect.  Better  still  is  it  for  an  unpractised 
hand  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  the  artist  at  the  press-side,  to 
direct  him  in  making  ready  the  cut.'i' 


CARD  PRINTING 

HAS,  since  the  introduction  of  enamelled  or  polished  cards, 
made  rapid  strides  toward  perfection ;  the  fine  absorbing 
quality  of  the  enamel,  under  proper  management,  producing 
the  most  beautiful  results, — in  many  cases  scarcely  discernible 
from  copperplate.  A  card,  to  be  well  printed,  requires  as 
careful  treatment  as  a  wood  engraving,  (see  p.  280,)  so  far  as 
making  ready  is  concerned,  and  in  working  without  blankets 
and  using  the  finest  ink.  Having  made  a  light  impression  on 
the  tympan-sheet,  place  the  pins  so  as  to  bring  the  impression 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  centre  of  the  card,  one  pin  at  the 

(•)  Adapted  from  Savage. 


284  GOLD  AND  BRONZE  PRINTING. 

lower  side  and  two  at  the  off  side,  taking  care  that  the  head 
of  the  pin  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  types.  The  im- 
pression should  be  exceedingly  light  until  properly  regulated, 
— at  no  time  more  than  is  actually  necessary  to  bring  up  the 
face  of  the  type.  Cards  are  now  mostly  printed  on  small 
card-machines,  at  the  rate  of  one,  two,  and  even  ten  thousand 
per  hour.    All  cards  should  be  printed  dry. 

A  small  quantity  of  varnish  put  on  the  rollers  and  well  dis- 
tributed will  prevent  the  enamel  from  peeling.  The  addition 
of  a  little  ultramarine  blue  will  beautifully  intensify  the  black 
ink  used  in  printing  enamelled  cards. 

The  patent  extension  feed  guides,  or  tympan  gauge  pins, 
shown  on  page  310,  will  be  found  very  convenient  and  useful. 

GOLD  PRINTING. 

THE  types  being  made  ready  for  press  in  the  usual  manner, 
the  surface  is  covered  in  the  ordinary  way  with  gold  size 
instead  of  ink,  and  the  impression  taken  upon  the  paper.  For 
a  large  job,  remove  only  the  back  from  a  book  of  leaf-gold; 
for  a  small  one,  lay  a  straight  edge  across  the  book,  and  cut  it 
through,  of  the  size  required,  with  the  point  of  a  sharp  pen- 
knife. This  must  be  done  before  using  the  size.  Slightly  wet 
the  end  of  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  and,  placing  the 
thumb  of  that  hand  on  the  pile  of  gold,  raise  the  edge  of  the 
paper  with  the  forefinger  sufficiently  to  dampen  it  with  the 
moisture  of  that  finger;  then  press  the  moistened  edge  of  the 
paper  on  the  gold,  and  it  will  adhere  sufficiently  to  enable  the 
fingers  to  lift  gold  and  paper  together  and  place  it  on  the  im- 
pression. Proceed  thus  until  the  size  is  entirely  covered; 
gently  pat  the  gold  with  the  balls  of  the  fingers,  or  any  soft, 
pliable  substance,  until  it  is  set;  then,  with  a  very  soft  hat- 
brush,  remove  the  superfluous  gold,  when  a  clear  and  beau- 
tiful impression  will  appear.  Its  sharpness  will  depend  on 
tlie  judgment  of  the  printer  in  applying  the  size  to  the  type. 

BRONZE  PRINTING 

IS  used  more  extensively  than  gold  printing,  being  attended 
with  far  less  expense  in  the  cost  of  the  material.     The 
method  of  printing  is  the  same,  except  that,  instead  of  laying 


PRINTING  IN  COLOURS. 


285 


on  the  gold-leaf,  the  impression  is  rubbed  over  with  the 
bronze,  by  dipping  a  small  block,  covered  with  a  short,  fine 
fur,  or  a  small  wad  of  raw  cotton,  into  the  powder,  and  brush- 
ing of}'  the  superfluous  bronze  with  a  soft  brush,  as  in  gold 
printing.  Bronze  can  be  procured  of  various  colours,  and 
when  laid  on  with  judgment  the  effect  is  beautiful.  The  palest 
bronze  is  best.  To  produce  a  finished  effect  after  bronzing, 
take  finelj'-powdered  soapstone,  and  apply  in  the  same  manner 
as  bronze. 


bTONE    AND    MULLER. 


PRINTING  IN  COLOURS. 

WHEN  red  and 
black  are  to  be 
printed  on  the  same 
sheet, — the  same  pro- 
cess being  applicable 
to  all  other  colours, — 
the  form  is  made  ready 
in  the  usual  way,  and 
a  chalk-line  is  traced 
around  the  outside  of 
the  chase  on  the  press-bed,  to  show  the  exact  situation  in 
which  the  form  must  be  replaced  after  having  been  lifted.  The 
form  is  then  laid  with  its  face  downward  on  a  letter-board 
covered  with  the  press-blankets.  The  words  marked  in  the 
proof  to  be  printed  red  are  then  forced  down,  and  Nonpareil 
reglets  nicely  fitted  into  the  vacancies,  which  raise  the  red  lines 
and  words  an  equal  distance  from  the  other  matter.  A  sheet 
of  paper  is  then  pasted  on  the  form,  to  keep  the  Nonpareil 
underlays  in  their  proper  places.  The  form  is  again  laid  on  the 
press,  observing  the  utmost  care  in  placing  it  in  its  original 
position  as  indicated  by  the  marks  before  made  on  the  bed. 

It  must  then  be  made  perfectly  fast  to  the  corner  irons,  as 
it  '.s  highly  important  that  it  remain  firm  and  immovable 
during  its  stay  on  the  press.  The  frisket  (which  is  covered 
with  strong  paper)  is  then  put  on,  the  form  rolled  over  with 
the  red  ink,  and  an  impression  made  on  it.  The  red  words 
are  then  cut  out  with  a  sharp-pointed  penknife,  with  so  much 
nicety  as  not  to  admit  the  smallest  soil  on  the  paper  from  the 
other  matter. 


286  PRINTING  IN  COLOURS. 

The  red  being  finished  and  the  form  washed,  the  com- 
positor unlocks  it,  (this  should  be  done  on  the  imposing-stone, 
as  the  pressman  can  easily  lay  it  agreeably  to  the  marks  made 
on  the  press,)  and  draws  out  the  red  lines,  filling  up  the  space 
with  quadrates.  When  this  is  done,  the  pressman  cuts  out  the 
frisket  for  the  black.  An  extra  pair  of  points  are  used  to  pre- 
vent the  black  from  falling  on  the  red,  or,  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  riding.  Generally,  when  a  great  number  is  to  be 
printed,  as  many  forms  are  used  as  there  are  colours  to  be 
printed.  Another  method  of  placing  the  underlays  is  adopted 
for  broadsides,  &c.  with  large  letter  and  with  but  two  or  three 
lines  of  red.  The  red  lines  are  taken  out  on  the  press,  and 
underlays  are  put  in,  upon  which  the  lines  are  placed,  and  the 
frisket  is  cut  out  as  before  mentioned. 

A  more  expeditious  method  can  be  employed  for  forms  in 
which  the  lines  of  one  colour  are  not  too  numerous  to  be  easily 
lifted.  After  the  form  is  ready,  and  the  various  colours  are 
marked  on  the  proof,  a  skeleton  form  is  made  up,  with  labour- 
saving  quotation  furniture  or  wood  furniture  fitted  into  the 
spaces  of  all  the  lines  except  those  of  the  colour  to  be  first 
printed.  When  the  first  colour  is  printed,  its  lines  are  lifted 
from  the  form,  and  the  spaces  filled  with  furniture,  and  the  lines 
for  the  next  colour  are  set  in  their  proper  places  and  printed; 
and  so  on  till  the  job  is  completed. 

The  custom  of  printing  broadsides,  &c.  with  several  colours 
is  so  common  that  ink-makers  generally  now  manufacture 
coloured  inks;  consequently  the  printer  can  be  supplied  with- 
out the  delay  and  labour  of  making.  We  give  the  following 
particulars,  however,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wisli  to  pre- 
pare their  own  colours. 

Varnish  is  the  common  menstruum  adopted  for  all  colours 
in  printing.  Red  is  the  colour  generally  used  with  black. 
Trieste  or  English  Vermilion,  with  a  small  portion  of  lake, 
produces  a  beautiful  red,  which  should  be  ground  with  a 
muller  on  a  marble  slab  till  it  be  perfectly  smooth.  If  it  be  in 
the  smallest  degree  gritty,  it  clogs  the  form,  and  consequently 
produces  a  thick  and  imperfect  impression;  no  pains  should, 
therefore,  be  spared  to  render  it  perfectly  smooth ;  it  may  then 
be  made  to  work  as  clear  and  free  from  picks  as  black.  A 
cheaper  red,  but  not  so  brilliant,  may  be  prepared  with  orange 
mineral,  rose  pink,  and  red  lead. 


HO IV  TO  USE  DRY  COLOURS.  287 

Prussian  blue  makes  also  an  excellent  colour,  but  will 
require  much  time  and  labour  to  make  it  perfectly  smooth. 
It  is  also  ground  with  the  best  varnish,  but  made  considerably 
thicker,  by  allowing  a  greater  portion  of  colour  with  the  same 
quantity  of  varnish  than  the  red ;  it  will  then  work  clear  and 
free  from  picks.  As  this  colour  dries  rather  rapidly,  the 
rollers  should  be  frequently  washed. 

Other  colours  may  be  made,— viz.,  lake  and  Indian  red, 
which  produce  a  deep  red;  verditure  and  indigo,  for  blues; 
orpiment,  pink,  yellow  ochre,  for  yellows ;  verdigris  and  green 
verditure,  for  green,  &c.  All  these  colours  should  be  ground 
with  soft  varnish,  being  in  themselves  driers,  or  they  will 
choke  up  the  form.  The  consistency  of  the  ink  must  be 
governed  by  the  quality  of  the  work  to  be  executed.  For  a 
posting-bill  or  coarse  job,  the  ink  should  be  very  thin,  the 
proportion  of  varnish  being  much  greater  than  required  for 
fine  work.  Should  the  work  be  a  wood-cut,  or  small  type, 
the  pigment  should  be  made  as  thick  as  possible. 

.  The  best  colours  for  printing  are  those  of  the  lightest  body 
and  brightest  colour. 


HOW  TO  USE  DRY  COLOURS. 

TO  produce  fine  qualities  of  coloured  printing  inks  by  mix- 
ing pure  dry  colours  with  varnish,  the  printer  will  do  well 
to  give  heed  to  the  following  particulars  : — 

1.  No  more  should  be  mixed  at  a  time  than  will  be  required 
for  the  job  in  hand. 

2.  Coloured  inks  should  be  mixed  upon  a  slate  or  marble 
slab,  by  means  of  the  muller,  and  never  upon  an  iron  or  other 
metallic  table.  The  table,  before  mixing,  should  be  thoroughly 
clean,  and  perfectly  free  from  the  slightest  soil  or  trace  of 
other  inks. 

3.  For  working  coloured  inks,  the  roller  should  not  be  too 
hard,  and  should  possess  a  biting,  elastic  face.  When  change 
of  colour  is  required,  it  should  be  cleaned  with  turpentine, 
and  a  moist  sponge  passed  over  the  face,  allowing  a  few 
minutes  for  the  roller  to  dry  before  resuming  its  use. 

For  bronze  printing,  the  roller  should  have  a  firm  face,  or 
the  tenacity  of  the  preparation  may  destroy  it;  yet  it  must 


288  HO  W  TO  MUL TIPL  Y  COLOURS. 

have  sufficient  elasticity  to  deposit  the  preparation  freely  and 
cleanly  on  the  type. 

4.  Various  shades  may  be  produced  by  observing  the  fol- 
lowing directions : — 

Bright  Pink  Ink. — Use  carmine  or  crimson  lake. 

Deep  Sc.\rlet. — To  carmine  add  a  little  deep  vermilion. 

Bright  Red. — To  pale  vermilion  add  carmine. 

Deep  Lilac. — To  cobalt  blue  add  a  little  carmine. 

Pale  Lilac. — To  carmine  add  a  little  cobalt  blue. 

Bright  Pale  Blue. — Cobalt. 

Deep  Bronze  Blue. — Chinese. 

Green. — To  pale  chrome  add  Chinese  blue;  any  shade  can 
be  obtained  by  increasing  or  diminishing  either  colour. 

E.mer.\ld  Green. — Mi.x  pale  chrome  with  a  little  Chinese 
blue,  then  add  the  emerald  until  the  tint  is  satisfactory. 

Amber. — To  pale  chrome  add  a  little  carmine. 

Deep  Brown. — Burnt  umber,  with  a  little  scarlet  lake. 

Pale  Brown. — Burnt  sienna;  a  rich  shade  is  made  by 
adding  a  little  lake  as  above. 

5.  Gold  Preparation.  Print  as  with  ordinary  ink,  then 
put  on  the  bronze  powder  with  a  broad  camel-hair  brush; 
allow  the  impressions  to  remain  a  short  time  for  the  prepara- 
tion to  set,  then  clean  off  the  superfluous  bronze:  the  im- 
pressions will  be  much  improved  if  passed  through  rollers. 


HOW  TO  MULTIPLY  COLOURS. 

APR  INTER  who  has  on  hand  a  stock  of  yellow,  carmine, 
blue,  and   black  inks,  may  produce  other  colours  and 
shades  by  intermi.xing  as  follows : — 

Yellow  and  carmine,  mixed,  will  give Vermilion. 

Carmine  and  blue Purple. 

Blue  and  black Deep  blue. 

Carmine,  yellow,  and  black Brown. 

Yellow  and  blue Green. 

Yellow  and  black Bronze  green. 

Yellow,  blue,  and  black Deep  green. 

Ligliter  sliades  may  be  obtained  by  adding  proper  propor- 
tions of  white  ink. 


CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS.  289 


CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS. 

IT  is  wrongly  supposed  that  the  art  of  arranging  colours  so 
as  to  produce  the  best  effects  in  printing  is  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  taste  of  the  operator;  for  harmony  is  deter- 
mined by  fixed  natural  laws.  The  increasing  demand  for 
decorative  or  ornamental  work  renders  it  of  some  importance 
to  the  letter-press  printer  to  make  himself  acquainted  with 
these  laws;  as,  without  some  attention  to  them,  the  most  ele- 
gant designs  of  the  type  founder,  and  the  finest  inks  that  can 
be  made,  may  yield  but  an  indifferent,  if  not  a  decidedly  un- 
pleasing,  result. 

The  following  remarks  will  be  of  use  to  persons  to  whom 
the  subject  is  new;  but  for  a  thorough  explanation  of  it  they 
should  refer  to  Chevreul  on  Colours, — a  valuable  work  in  the 
French  language,  which  has  been  translated  into  English. 

I.  We  may,  in  the  first  place,  consider  white  light  as 
composed  of  three  primary  colours — blue,  red,  and  yellow — 
duly  blended;  these  three,  in  an  infinite  v^ariety  of  proportion, 
serving  to  produce  all  the  hues  in  creation.  If  we  take  any 
two  of  these  primaries  and  mix  them,  we  have  a  secondary 
colour.  Thus,  blue  and  red  form  violet,  blue  and  yellow  give 
green,  red  and  yellow  make  orange.  Each  of  these  secondary 
colours  harmonizes  perfectly  with  the  primary  which  does  not 
enter  into  its  composition.  Violet,  for  instance, — itself  a  mix- 
ture of  red  and  blue, — harmonizes  with  yellow ;  green,  having 
no  red  in  its  composition,  agrees  well  with  red ;  orange,  in  the 
same  way,  forms  a  perfect  contrast  with  blue.  Either  of  these 
contrasts  has  the  effect  of  mutually  brightening  the  colours 
employed;  a  red  and  a  green,  &c.  being  more  beautiful  when 
placed  side  by  side  than  when  viewed  singly.  This  is  termed 
the  HARMONY  OF  CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS;  and  a  good  example 
of  it  is  seen  in  the  scarlet  geranium,  or  the  holly;  the  one 
showing  a  light  green  leaf  opposed  to  a  bright  red  flower,  and 
the  other  a  deep  green  leaf  with  a  dark  red  berry. 

The  mixing  of  colours  is  a  \&xy  different  thing  from  con- 
trasting Xh&vn.  ;  for  strange  as  it  may  seem,  although  one  com- 
bination of  the  primary  colours  gives  white,  yet  another 
proportion  will  produce  black.  While,  then,  red  and  green 
look  beautiful  side  by  side,  it  does  not  generally  answer  to 


290  CONTRAST  OF  COLOURS. 

print  red  ink  on  green  paper.  The  reason  is,  that  as  the  ink 
is  slightly  transparent,  some  of  the  green  shows  through  it, 
and  appears  somewhat  black,  and  thus  lowers  the  brilliance  of 
the  red  in  the  same  degree  as  so  much  black  ink  would,  if 
mixed  with  it.  This  remark  will  apply  to  orange  or  yellow  on 
a  blue  paper,  &c.  The  darker  and  fuller  the  body  of  colour 
used,  the  less  it  is  affected  in  this  manner. 

The  most  perfect  contrasts  are  those  above  mentioned, 
which  are  formed  by  the  complementary  colours;  yet  the  pri- 
maries blue,  red,  and  yellow  also  agree  well  together.  But  if 
such  colours  as  are  not  in  harmony  are  placed  near  each  other, 
the  effect  is  very  damaging  to  their  brightness.  While  red  is 
made  more  brilliant  by  the  pro.ximity  of  green,  it  is  dimmed 
and  spoiled  by  placing  it  ne.xt  an  orange.  Neither  blue  nor 
red  contrasts  well  with  violet,  because  the  latter  contains  each 
of  these  colours  in  its  composition.  In  any  case  where  they 
must  come  into  juxtaposition,  the  unpleasant  effect  may  be 
lessened  by  adding  a  little  of  the  opposite  colour:  so.  if  a 
violet  is  to  contrast  with  red,  it  will  be  well  to  give  it  a  shade 
of  blue,  making  it  mor^  purp/e ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  to 
contrast  with  blue  or  green,  it  should  be  made  redder. 

II.  Colours  with  Black.  In  all  contrasts,  the  depth  of 
the  colour  is  an  important  element,  but  especially  so  in  such 
as  are  to  be  affected  by  the  presence  of  black.  In  but  few 
instances  will  the  latter  bear  the  neighbourhood  of  a  very  deep 
colour  to  advantage,  while  it  harmonizes  with  the  lighter  ones 
by  contrast  of  tone.  Yellow,  from  its  near  approach  to  white, 
should  always  be  worked  "  full ;"  orange  and  green  should 
also  be  full,  and  moderately  deep  in  tone,  to  contrast  with 
black.  If  a  blue  is  employed,  it  should  be  light,  or  it  will  im- 
poverish the  black  and  be  weakened  itself.  A  very  light  blue 
border,  with  a  broad  margin  of  white  between  it  and  the  body 
of  matter  enclosed,  will  give  a  clean,  bright  look  to  black  ink, 
and  whiteness  to  the  paper.  A  light  pink  (such  as  carmine 
reduced  with  flake-white  or  with  clear  varnish)  is  also  good; 
yet  perhaps  the  preceding  is  preferable.  Dark  and  heavy 
borders  are  frequently  a  positive  injury  to  printing,  where  the 
working  in  a  liglit  shade  would  have  secured  a  good  effect; 
for  the  border  sliould  always  be  so  far  secondary  to  the  matter 
enclosed  as  not  to  draw  off  the  attention  too  nuich  to  itself. 


COXTKAST  OF  COLOURS.  2gi 

III.  Colours  on  Tinted  Papers  and  Tinted  Grounds. 
Besides  the  kind  of  harmony  already  mentioned,  there  is  an- 
other, which  is  produced  by  the  contrast  of  light  and  dark 
shades  of  the  same  colour.  This  might  be  employed  in  letter- 
press more  frequently  than  it  is  at  present,  with  some  advan- 
tage, as  the  effects  it  is  capable  of  yielding  are  very  chaste  and 
pleasing.  In  a  photograph  or  an  engraving,  all  the  effect  is 
dependent  on  difference  of  tones  of  one  colour ;  and  the  beauty 
of  a  wood  in  summer  consists  chiefly  in  the  contrast  displayed 
by  a  variety  of  shades  of  green  only.  A  deep  green  ink  on  a 
paper  of  a  light  tone  of  the  same  colour  is  especially  good,  if  a 
heavy  letter  is  used ;  and  indeed  in  most  printing  in  colours, 
full,  solid-faced  letter  should  be  preferred  to  outlines  or  shaded 
ones,  which  are  difficult  to  work,  and  have  at  best  but  an 
inferior  appearance  unless  the  darkest  tones  are  employed.  A 
deep  blue  on  a  light  blue  ground,  or  against  a  light  blue  bor- 
der, is  also  good ;  and  without  the  latter  accompaniment  it  is 
not  unpleasant  on  a  blue  wove  writing-paper.  To  secure  the 
proper  effect,  however,  the  tints  should  be  of  the  same  hue ; 
that  is,  if  the  groundwork  is  of  a  bluish  green,  the  colour  that 
is  to  be  worked  upon  it  should  also  be  a  green  inclining  to 
blue;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ground  is  of  a  yellower  green, 
the  body  of  ink  should  also  be  yellower;  and  so  on.  This  may 
easily  be  managed  by  adding  a  small  portion  of  ink  of  the 
colour  required,  until  the  hue  is  matched. 

IV.  Neutral  Tints.  In  selecting  borders  for  the  more 
chaste  description  of  printing,  it  is  a  pretty  safe  rule  to  avoid 
such  as  cover  much  surface,  if  they  are  to  be  worked  in  any 
strong  colour  or  in  black.  When  lighter  tints  are  used,  they 
will  bear  extension  over  a  larger  surface ;  and  in  this  case  a 
pale  gray  or  neutral  border  will  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  any 
body  with  which  it  is  contrasted,  as  well  as  on  black  itself, 
which  is  purified  by  its  proximity.  If  the  central  printing  is 
in  black  only,  or  in  black  and  yellow,  a  lavender  gray  may 
be  substituted  for  the  border.  And  in  any  case  in  which  the 
central  matter  is  all  in  one  colour,  it  will  improve  it  to  have  a 
border  of  gray  which  is  slightly  tinged  ivith  the  complementary 
of  such  colour.  Thus,  if  the  body  be  red,  a  very  small  portion 
oi green  may  be  added  to  the  gray;  and  so  forth. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  ornamental  printing  abso- 


292  CLEANING  WOOD  TYPE. 

lute  cleanliness  is  indispensable.  The  same  roller  should 
never  be  used  for  difterent  colours,  even  after  it  has  been 
washed.  Instead  of  hanging  exposed  to  dust  and  to  the  air, 
rollers  should  be  kept  in  a  tightly-closed  box;  and  in  this 
manner  they  will  remain  a  long  time  in  good  order.  The  tins 
of  ink  should  be  similarly  preserved,  and  the  lids  never  left 
off  except  at  the  moment  of  using  from  them.  These  are 
small  matters;  but  it  is  only  by  patient  attention  to  minute 
details  that  excellence  can  be  attained  in  printing. 


OILING  A  PRESS. 

EXCESSIVE  lubrication  is  wasteful,  unclean,  and  hurtful 
to  a  press.  A  small  quantity  of  oil  should  be  used  at  a 
time,  as  a  large  amount  will  overrun  on  the  press,  and  hold  the 
dust  and  grit  caused  by  sweeping  the  floor ;  these,  working  into 
the  journals,  will  wear  the  press  more  than  use.  The  best  oil 
should  be  used,  whether  sperm,  lard,  or  coal.  Kerosene  may 
be  used  to  clean  the  ways  of  a  press  when  they  have  become 
gummed  by  the  use  of  improper  oil.  Presses  should  always 
be  kept  scrupulously  clean. 


HOW  TO  TREAT  WOOD  TYPE. 

TO  prevent  warping,  all  very  large  wood  type  should  be  set 
up  on  the  edge  when  put  away,  so  that  both  sides  may  be 
equally  exposed  to  the  air.  In  cleaning  it,  neither  ley  nor 
water  should  be  employed  under  any  circumstances.  Tur- 
pentine, camphene,  benzine,  or  kerosene  oil  may  be  used; 
but  turpentine  and  camphene  are  the  best.  Procure  a  small, 
shallow  pan ;  lay  the  form  flat  on  a  board ;  pour  about  six 
tablespoonfuls  of  turpentine  into  the  pan;  touch  the  face  of 
the  brush  to  the  turpentine,  and  pass  it  quickly  over  the  form 
before  it  evaporates.  Six  to  eight  spoonfuls  of  fluid  will  be 
found  sufficient  to  clean  a  large  form,  if  thus  used. 


PALETTE    KNIFE. 


WAREHOUSE    DEPARTMENT. 


THE  WAREHOUSEMAN. 

THE  warehouseman  should  be  a 
man  sober  and  upright,  and  tho- 
roughly  competent  to  the  business, 
on    whom    entire    reliance    maj^    be 
placed, — one  who  will  act  upon  the 
principle  of  making  his   employer's 
interest  the  end  of  all  his  action.    The 
employer  or  foreman  should  frequently  look  to  the  concerns 
of  the  warehouse,  and  see  that  all  the  work  is  forwarded  with 
despatch  and  accuracy. 

The  warehouseman  should  be  provided  with  a  book,  termed 
"  The  \Varehouse  Book,"  with  pages  annexed,  on  the  follow- 
ing plan,  and  about  the  size  of  foolscap  quarto : — 


Butler's  New  American  Arithmetic.     (No.  printed,  5000.) 

DATE. 

RECEIPT  OF 

PAPER,  AND  OF 

WHOM. 

NO.  OF 
COPIES  DE- 
LIVERED. 

TO  WHOM  DE- 
LIVERED, AND  RE- 
CEIPTED FOR. 

FOR   WHOM. 

1878. 
May  3. 

43  reams  of  E.  C. 
&  P.  H.  Warren. 

June  8. 

40  ditto. 

"    24- 

"   3°- 

Aug.  4. 

"     5- 



With  waste 

2500 

2000 

300 

230 

5030 

Speel  &  Co. 
R.  Eyelet,  binder. 
Paul  Picot. 
Wm.  Crouse. 

J.  H.  Butler 
&Co. 

293 


% 

294  GIVING  OUT  PAPER   TO   WET. 

When  the  paper  is  brought,  the  warehouseman  should  at  once 
compare  it  with  the  bill  of  delivery,  and,  if  right,  enter  the 
quantity  immediately  into  the  warehouse  book.  The  number 
of  printed  copies  delivered  to  the  binder  or  publisher  should 
also  be  entered,  and  his  signature  be  taken  at  the  time  of 
delivery.  This  plan  will  prevent  disputes  with  the  book- 
seller or  author  relative  to  the  receipt  of  paper  or  the  delivery 
of  sheets. 

Having  entered  the  receipt  of  the  paper,  the  warehouseman 
should  then  write  on  each  bundle,  with  red  chalk,  the  title  of 
the  book  it  is  to  be  used  for,  and  remove  it  into  a  convenient 
part  of  the  warehouse,  or  into  a  store-room  provided  for  that 
purpose. 

GIVING  OUT  PAPER  TO  WET. 

A  BUNDLE  of  paper  consists  of  two  reams,  or  forty  quires, 
each  quire  containing  twenty-four  sheets.  Formerly,  the 
two  outside  quires  were  called  cassie  quires,  as  they  were 
mostly  made  up  of  torn,  stained,  wrinkled,  or  otherwise  im- 
perfect sheets.  At  present,  all  the  quires  are  considered  good, 
although  some  outer  sheets  are  injured  by  the  twine  used  in 
tying  up  the  bundles. 

It  is  the  general  custom  to  print  of  every  work  what  is 
termed  an  eveti  number, — either  250,  500,  750,  1000,  &c.  These 
quantities  are  given  out  for  the  wetter  in  tokens, — viz.:  for  250 
sheets,  one  token,  containing  10  quires  18  sheets;  for  500, 
two  tokens,  one  11  quires,  and  the  other  10  quires  and  a  half; 
for  750,  three  tokens,  two  of  them  11  quires  each,  and  the 
other  10  (juires  6  sheets;  and  for  1000,  four  tokens,  three  of 
them  II  quires  each,  and  the  other  10  quires.  If  a  work  is 
printed  in  half-sheets,  it  of  course  requires  only  half  the  above 
quantities. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  form  any  positive  and  invariable 
rule  for  the  quantity  to  be  given  out  for  short  numbers,  as  it 
must  depend  in  some  degree  upon  the  quality  of  the  paper. 
The  more  e.xpensive  papers,  on  which,  generally,  short  num- 
bers or  fine  copies  are  printed,  must  be  given  out  more 
sparingly  than  common  paper,  and  the  tympan  and  register 
sheets  lie  sujiplied  by  a  more  common  sort,  cut  to  the  size  of 
the  finer.     For  numbers  up  to   150,  on  ordinary  paper,  si.K 


HAXGING   UP  PAPER   TO  DRY.  295 

sheets  over  will  be  sufficient.     Some  publishers  are  very  testy 

on  this  point  of  allowance  for  waste. 

In  giving  out  paper  for  what  are  termed  jobs,  the  amount 

necessary   can   easily   be  found  by  a   simple   calculation  in 

division. 

For  example,  a  job,  (label  or  any  thing  else,)  750  in  number, 

\_j.  i„.     32  on  a  sheet,  will  require  24  sheets,  which  will  give 

r.  an  overplus  of  18.     Where  a  sheet  has  to  be  cut  into 

— —         many  parts,  allowance  must  be  made  for  accidents. 

r  The  overplus  sheets  are  allowed  for  tympan-sheets, 

register-sheets,  and  other  incidents,  such  as  bad 

14 

sheets,  faults  committed  in  rolling,  pulling,  bad 

register,  &c. ;  in  any  of  these  casualties,  the  pressman  doubles 

the  sheet  in  the  middle  and  lays  it  across  the  heap.     In  laying 

out  the  paper,  the  warehouseman  reverses  every  other  token, 

to  enable  the  wetter  to  distinguish  the  different  tokens.    When 

this  is  done,  he  labels  the  heap,  thus :  Auiericati  Printer,  Ufay 

10,  1878, — that  the  pressman  may  know  how  long  it  has  been 

wet,  and  the  state  it  is  in  for  working. 


HANGING  UP  PAPER  TO  DRY. 

WHEN  the  paper  is  worked  off  and  counted,  the  ware- 
houseman carries  the  heap  to  the  drying-room,  where 
the  poles  are  fixed  for  the  purpose  of  hanging  the  sheets  upon 
to  dry,  and  lays  it  down  on  a  table  of  convenient  height,  with 
one  end  of  the  heap  toward  him.  He  then  takes  the  handle 
of  the  peel  in  one  hand,  and  laj-s  the  top  part  down  upon  the 
heap,  so  that  the  upper  edge  may  reach  near  the  middle  of  the 
sheet;  then,  with  the  other  hand,  he  doubles  over  as  much  of 
the  printed  paper  as  he  thinks  sufficient  to  hang  up  at  one  lift, 
which  should  be  about  twelve  sheets,  according  to  the  pole- 
room  to  hang  them. 

In  hanging  up  the  lifts,  he  places  them  so  that  each  lift  will 
lap  about  an  inch  over  the  preceding  one.  It  is  necessary, 
where  the  end  of  the  pole  is  exposed  to  a  strong  current  of 
air  from  a  window,  to  lock  the  last  lift.  This  is  done  by  fold- 
ing a  lift  two  or  three  times,  so  as  to  concentrate  its  weight  in 
a  small  compass,  and  hanging  this  over  the  last  lift  near  the 
window. 


296  FILLING  IX  AXD  PRESSING  SHEETS. 


TAKING  DOWN  SHEETS  WHEN  DRY. 

WHEN  the  sheets  are  sufficiently  dry,  the  warehouseman 
takes  his  peel  and  begins  with  the  last  lift  hung  up,  on 
account  of  the  wrapper  being  with  that  lift,  and  proceeds  in  the 
reverse  order  of  hanging  them  up,  successively  taking  them 
down,  and  brushing  them,  if  dusty,  till  he  has  finished  the 
whole. 

Another  way  of  taking  the  sheets  down  from  the  poles  is, 
to  lay  the  flat  side  of  the  peel  against  the  edge  of  that  lift 
which  hangs  over  the  other  sheets,  and  push  the  peel  forward, 
forcing  them  to  slide,  one  lift  over  another.  But  by  this 
method  the  dust  which  settles  on  the  sheets  while  hanging  is 
rubbed  in. 

FILLING  IN  AND  PRESSING  SHEETS. 

WHEN  the  sheets  are  taken  down,  the  warehouseman 
removes  them  to  the  warehouse,  where  they  are  filled 
in  between  smooth  pasteboards  made  for  the  purpose.  This 
operation  is  generally  performed  by  boys,  who,  after  a  little 
practice,  become  exceedingly  expert  at  it.  We  shall  try  to 
be  somewhat  minute  in  our  description  of  this  operation.  We 
will  suppose  the  pasteboards  to  have  sheets  between  them, 
which  will  be  the  case  after  they  have  been  once  used.  The 
warehouse  being  provided  with  long  tables  or  benches,  secured 
to  the  wall,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  movable  tables  about 
the  size  of  the  largest  paper,  the  warehouseman  places  one  of 
the  small  tables  endwise  against  the  long  one,  forming  a  right 
angle,  upon  which  to  lay  the  pressed  sheets  as  they  come  out 
of  the  boards;  the  boy  then  takes  his  stand  at  the  right  side 
of  the  table,  with  the  dry  unpressed  sheets  at  his  right  hand 
and  the  pasteboards  at  his  left,  somewhat  elevated,  leaving 
sufficient  space  before  him  to  fill  in  the  sheets.  He  then  pro- 
ceeds as  follows.  He  first  moistens  the  thumb  of  his  right 
hand  and  reaches  across  to  the  pasteboards  at  his  left,  draw- 
ing one  off  with  his  thumb  and  placing  it  before  him ;  he  then 
catches  a  sheet  of  the  dry  paper  also  with  his  right  hand  and 
places  it  as  near  the  centre  of  the  pasteboard  as  possible; 
then,  twisting  his  body  nimbly  round  to  the  left,  he  slides  the 
pressed  sheet  from  the  pile  of  pasteboards  to  the  table  at  his 


COUNTING  OUT. 


297 


left  side,  and,  in  resuming  his 
former  position,  again  draws 
off  a  pasteboard  with  his  thumb ; 
and  so  on,  till  the  gross  or  bun- 
dle is  filled.  It  is  then  laid 
aside,  and  another  bundle  filled 
and  laid  across  the  former,  tak- 
ing care  always  to  keep  the  bun- 
dles separated  until  they  are  put 
in  press,  when  they  are  sepa- 
rated by  smooth  boards  made 
of  cherry  or  other  hard  wood. 
The  bundles  being  all  filled  in, 
the  warehouseman  proceeds  to 
fill  up  the  standing-press,  put- 
ting in  one  bundle  at  a  time  and 
placing  a  pressing-board  be- 
tween them ;  there  should  also 
be  a  stout  plank  introduced 
between  the  top  board  and  the 
platen.  In  case  the  press  should 
not  hold  quite  as  much  as  de- 
sired, more  may  be  got  in  by 
unscrewing  the  press  after  it 
has  been  once  screwed  down. 
The  press  is  finally  screwed 
down  as  tight  as  possible.  It 
should  remain  so  for  at  least  twelve  hours,  when  it  should  be 
entirely  emptied  before  the  sheets  are  taken  out  of  the  boards. 
The  sides  of  the  piles  or  heaps  must  be  kept  perfectly  even. 
In  large  offices,  hydraulic  presses  are  used. 


IMPROVED    STANDING    PRESS. 


COUNTING  OUT  AND  PUTTING  AWAY  SHEETS. 


WHEN  the  sheets  are  taken  out,  the  warehouseman  knocks 
them  up,  and,  after  counting  them  into  quires,  ties  them 
up  in  wrappers,  marking  the  name  of  the  work  and  signature 
on  each  bundle.  Two  or  three  sheets  of  each  signature  should 
be  laid  aside,  in  case  the  author,  bookseller,  or  employer 
should  want  a  copy  of  the  work  or  a  specimen  of  as  many 
sheets  as  are  finished. 


298 


SIZES    OF  PAPER. 


STANDARD    SIZES    OF    MACHINE-MADE    PAPER. 

{Furnished  by  A.  G.  Elliot  &=  Co.,  Philadelphia.) 

PRINTING    PAPER. 


Medium   .    .    .    inches,  19  x  24 

Royal 20  X  25 

Super  Royal 21x27 

Imperial 22  x  32 


Royal  and  Half,  inches,  25  x  30 
Double  INIedium  .  .  .  24  x  38 
Imperial  and  Half  .  .  32  x  33 
Double  Super  Royal  .  27  x  42 


Double  Imperial,  32  <  44. 

Other  sizes  kept  on  hand,  but  without  technical  names,  are 
as  follows : — 22  x  28 ;  24  ■-  36 ;  25  ■  39 ;  26  x  40 ;  28  x  42. 


WRITING    PAPER. 


Note ....  inches,  8 
Packet  Note   ...    9 

Letter 10 

Conmiercial  Post  .  1 1 
Packet  Post    .    .   ■  \\) 

Foolscap 13 

Flat  Cap 14 

Crown 15 

Demy 16 

Folio 17 


X  10 

X  IlK 
X  16 

XI7 

X  16 

X  17 
X  19 
X  21 
X  22 


Medium  .    .    .    inches,  18  x  23 

Royal 19  X  24 

Super  Royal 20  x  28 

Imperial 23  x  31 

Elephant 23  x  28 

Columbier 23  x  34 

Atlas 26  X  33 

Double  Elephant ...  27  x  40 
Antiquarian 31^53 


A  TABLE 

For  ascertaining  the  Number  of  Forms  for  a  Book  of  any  Size, 
and  the  Quantity  of  Paper  necessary  to  print  a  thousand 
copies  in  any  form,  frotn  Octavo  to  j6mo,  halfsheetwise. 


NO.  OF 
FORMS. 

8vfl. 

12nio. 

16mo. 

18mo. 

24nio. 

32mo. 

Qflmn   papeS  for 

ibmo.  looocopiEs^ 

PAGES. 

PAGES. 

PAGES.   P 

AGES. 

PAGES. 

PAGES. 

PAGES.  IrEAMS.QRS.] 

1 

8 

12 

16 

18 

24 

32 

36  1 

2 

2 

i6 

24 

32 

36 

48 

64 

72    2 

1 

3 

24 

36 

48 

54 

72 

96 

108    3 

6 

4 

32 

48 

64 

72 

96 

128 

144    4 

8 

5 

40 

60 

80 

90 

120 

160 

180    5 

10 

6 

48 

72 

96 

108 

144 

192 

216    6 

12 

7 

56 

84 

112 

126 

168 

224 

252    7 

14 

8 

64 

96 

128 

144 

192 

256 

288    8 

16 

9 

72 

108 

144 

162 

216 

288 

324    9 

18 

10 

80 

120 

160 

180 

240 

320 

360  11 

11 

88 

132 

176 

198 

264 

352 

396  12 

2 

12 

96 

144 

192 

216 

288 

384 

432  13 

4 

13 

104 

156 

208 

234 

312 

416 

468  14 

6 

14 

112 

168 

224 

252 

336 

448 

504  15 

8 

15 

120 

180 

240 

270 

360 

480 

.  .  .      16 

10 

IG 

128 

192 

256 

288 

384 

512 

.  .  .      17 

12 

17 

136 

■  204 

272 

306 

408 

.  .  .  18 

U 

18 

144 

216 

288 

324 

432 

.  .  .      19 

16 

19 

152 

228 

304 

342 

456 

.  .  .  20 

18 

20 

160 

240 

320 

360 

480 

.   .  22 

21 

168 

252 

336 

378 

504 

.  .      23 

2 

22 

176 

264 

352 

396 

.  .  .  24 

"4 

28 

184 

276 

368 

414 

.  .      25 

6 

U 

192 

288 

384 

432 

.   .  26 

8 

25 

200 

300 

400 

450 

.  .      27 

10 

26 

208 

312 

416 

468 

.  .      28 

12 

27 

216 

324 

432 

486 

.  .      29 

14 

28 

224 

336 

448 

504 

.  .      SO 

16 

29 

232 

348 

464 

.   .      31 

18 

SO 

240 

360 

480 

.  .      S3 

SI 

248 

372 

496 

.  .      34 

2 

32 

256 

384 

512 

.  .      35 

4 

33 

264 

396 

528 

.  .      36 

6 

34 

272 

408 

544 

.  .      37 

8 

35 

280 

420 

560 

.  .      38 

10 

36 

288 

432 

576 

.  .      39 

12 

37 

296 

444 

592 

.  .      40 

14 

38 

304 

456 

608 

.  .      41 

16 

39 

312 

468 

.  .      43 

18 

40 

320 

480 

.  ■     44 

1 

Example. — Hcnv  ttiany  reams  luill  be  required  for  a  i2mo  book  containing  40S 
pages?  Find  the  number  of  pages  (408)  in  the  i2mo  column  :  in  the  outer  column 
on  the  left  of  the  table  the  number  of  forms  is  seen,  and  in  the  outer  column  on  the 
right  the  quantity  of  paper  required  is  given. 

26  299 


JOBBING   FACILITIES. 


THERE  is  no  department  in  the  art  that  is 
^  better  provided  with  means  for  its  efficient 

prosecution  than  job  printing.  It  is  true 
that  an  establisliment  full}-  provided  with 
all  the  old  and  new  conveniences  will  in- 
volve a  very  considerable  outlay ;  yet  a 
beginner  in  a  small  way,  who  has  to  count 
the  cost  carefully,  may  avail  himself  of  many 
facilities  which  were  unknown  a  score  of 
years  ago.  The  smaller  the  capital,  the 
more  need  for  the  exercise  of  a  wise  dis- 
cretion in  the  selection  of  material.  Regard 
should  be  had  to  the  special  line  of  work 
to  be  undertaken,  and  the  type  and  presses  adapted  to  that 
line  should  be  selected.  If  the  master  himself  shall  work  with 
head  and  hand,  perseveringly  and  early  and  late,  and  shall  do 
good  work  at  fair  prices — never  cutting-under  to  secure  a  job 
at  non-paying  rates, — and  shall  be  obliging  in  manner  and 
punctual  in  deliver}-,  and  shall  waste  no  dimes  in  drink  or 
other  useless  expenses,  the  growth  of  his  business  will  be  only 
a  matter  of  time;  and  he  will  gradually  be  able  to  order  just 
what  that  growth  necessitates,  until  he  shall  find  himself  the 
proprietor  of  a  well-appointed  office  and  a  paying  business.  In 
his  first  outlay  and  in  all  his  additions,  the  best  of  every  kind 
should  be  gotten,  if  possible,  as  cheap  tilings  always  prove  dear. 
It  matters  little  how  well  appointed  an  office  may  be,  there 
will  be  no  gains  in  it  unless  the  proprietor,  counting  the  cost 
carefully,  makes  sure  that  every  job  shall  pay  a  reasonable 
profit. 

300 


/ 


OBBING  FACILiriES. 


When  a  job  is  taken  in,  it  should  be  fully  entered  in  a 
volume,  giving  all  particulars  in  regard  to  the  number  of  copies, 
style,  and  price.  This  may  serve  as  a  Day  Book  or  Blotter. 
A  memorandum-slip,  like  the  following,  may  be  filled  out  for 
each  job,  and  kept  on  file  after  the  work  shall  have  been 
completed: — 

ito.of  (!)ntct 

Size  of  Card,  Paper  or  Book,  n'hen  finished 

Quality 

Number  of  Copies 

Style  of  Type •; 

Size  of  Form 

Colour  of  Ink 

Time  of  Composition 

Time  on  Press 

Proof  wanted 

Goods  to  be  called  for 

"         "      delivered 

Price 

Paid  in  advance,  $ 

Date 


It  will  be  satisfactory  to  keep  what  may  be  called  an  Es- 
timate Book,  in  which  may  be  entered  the  particulars  of  esti- 
mates given  for  various  kinds  of  work,  whether  the  job  be 
secured  or  not,  these  particulars  will  be  time-saving  when  a 
similar  piece  of  work  comes  in  for  estimate.  Samples  of 
paper,  of  all  grades  and  colours,  may  be  kept  in  a  convenient 
receptacle,  cut  up  into  various  sizes,  and  with  memoranda 
written  on  each  sample  to  denote  the  cost  per  ream,  the  weight, 
and  the  number  of  pieces  in  a  sheet. 

A  useful  thing  to  have  in  a  job  office  is  Ames's  Paper  and 
Card  Scale,  for  fractional  sizes,  showing  the  number  of  pieces 
of  any  required  size  that  can  be  cut  from  a  sheet  without  waste, 


JOBBING  FA  CIL  /TIES. 


with  a  table  giving  the  number  of  sheets  required  to  cut  looo 
pieces,  and  another  showing  the  cost  of  paper  by  the  quire, 
slieet,  and  hundred  sheets,  at  any  given  price  per  ream.  Besides 
the  above,  we  may  mention  Le  Blond's  Chart,  a  very  compact 
affair,  showing  the  number  of  any  given  size  of  card  that  can 
be  cut  out  of  a  card  sheet  22  x  28  inches. 


LABOUR-SAVING    RULE    CASE. 


The  modern  printer  has  every  convenience  that  can  be  de- 
sired in  the  way  of  cases,  and  his  type  and  other  material  are 
amply  provided  with  receptacles  well  adapted  for  each  special 
use.  There  are  not  only  large  and  small  cabinets,  tilled  with 
job  cases  of  various  styles  and  capacities,  but  there  may  be 
had  cases  for  rules,  leads,  and  furniture,  as  well  as  blank  cases 
for  indefinite  uses.     We  give  representations  of  these. 


JOBBING  FACILITIES. 


303 


LABOUR-SAVING    SLUG    CASE. 


LABUUK-SAV  I  N(i     LtAU     i_ASE. 


QUOTATION    FURNITURE    CASE. 


BLANK  CASE. 
26» 


304 


yOBBING  FACILITIES. 


All  cases  should  be  labelled,  and  the  label  should  be  printed 
in  the  same  type  that  is  contained  in  the  case. 

Capitals  and  lower-case  job  types  should  not  be  laid  to- 
gether in  the  same  boxes.  The  saving  of  time  in  a  year  will 
pay  for  extra  cases. 

Job  type-cases  should  be  kept  in  cabinets,  and  not  in  stand- 
racks,  as  the  latter  cannot  be  used  without  interfering  with 

the  hand  whose  stand 
may  contain  the  case 
wanted.  Various  kinds 
of  cabinets  are  shown 
on  pages  219-221,  231 
and  234,  some  of  which 
are  constructed  to  hold 
cases  and  quad  and 
space  boxes. 

All  matter  should  be 
cleared  away  as  soon 
as  done  with.  This 
work  can  be  done  by 
careful  boys.  Standing 
galleys, or  cabinets  with 
galley  toi)s,  for  type  to 
be  kept  awhile,  will  be 
found  useful  and  conve- 
nient ;  but  matter  pre- 
served for  occasional 
future  use  were  better 
papered  up  and  label- 
ed or  stored  away  lock- 
ed up  in  a  chase  cabinet. 
(See  p.  231.)  A  rack 
with  sloping  boards  to 
support  the  forms  will 
prove  to  be  a  safe  and  convenient  place  for  keeping  the  forms 
of  type  which  need  to  b©  held  standing. 

Labour-saving  leads,  and  slugs,  and  reglets,  cut  to  varying 
lengths,  when  not  in  use,  should  be  kept  in  cases  specially 
provided  for  them.  And  so  with  labour-saving  brass  rule, 
quotation  furniture,  rule,  etc.  It  is  economical  as  well  as  tidy 
to  have  appropriate  places  for  every  thing. 


CABINET   OF   CASES,    WITH    GALLEY 


yOBBIXG  FACILITIES. 


305 


For  fixed  measures,  or  measures  not  often  changed,  the 
standard  screw  composing-sticks  are  probablj-  the  best;  but 


for  jobbing  and  table-work,  where  the  measure  is  frequently 
altered,  it  will  be  well  to  use  the  new  styles,  such  as  are  shown 
above ;  no  screw-key  or  screw-driver  being  required,  the  latter 
can  be  quickly  and  easily  set  to  a  new  measure. 


3o6 


JOBBING  FACILITIES. 


The  boxwood  quoin  will  probably  continue  to  hold  its 
place,  though  not  a  few  printers  favour  the  use  of  the  newly- 
invented  iron  articles  offered  by  various  manufacturers,  such 
as  Webb's  Mechanical  Quoin,  Ames's,  Hoe's,  Allen's,  and 
Hempel's  Patent  Quoins.  The  latter  quoin  has,  from  its  dura- 
bility and  easy  application,  crowded  out  all  competitors. 


HEMPEL'S   QUOINS 


HEMPEL'S   QUOIN. 


Among  the  very  handy  tilings  to  have  about  an  office,  we 
may  enumerate  the  circular  and  hollow  quadrates,  shown  on 
pages  77  and  78 ;  corner  quadrates,  cast  in  type-metal ;  and 


CORNER   QUADRATES. 


also  the  brass  line-formers,  shown  on  page  79,  that  enal^le  the 
workman  to  curve  lines  expeditiously. 


JOBBING  FACILITIES. 


307 


Even  so  simple  a  thing 
as  a  shooting-stick,  com- 
monly made  of  hickory 
or  ash,  is  now  to  be  had 
in  brass  or  iron.  These 
latter  are  certainly  more 
durable,  but  dangerous  in 
careless  hands. 


WOODEN    SHOOTING-STICK. 


ARMSTRONG'S   COMBINED    MALLET   AND    SHOOTING-STICK. 

A  novel  invention  is  Armstrong's  Patent  Combined  Mallet 
and  Shooting-Stick.  This  is  desirable  for  general  use,  and 
for  locking-up  forms  on  the  press,  or  of  service  where  room 
for  the  use  of  the  ordinary  mallet  and  shooting-stick  is  limited 
to  a  confined  space. 


MITERING    MACHINE. 


A  mitering  machine  and  lead-cutter  are  among  the  neces- 
sary adjuncts  of  a  printing-office. 


LEAD    CUTTER. 


3o8 


JOBBING  FACILITIES. 


PERFORATING    RULE. 


Perforating  Rule  is  slightly  higher  than  type,  and  is  used  in 

printing  coupons  and 

rDrrTTrTrirj~'rrr\r\rT'rj~Tr\r\rT\    tickets  which  require 

to  be  partially  severed 
while  going  through 
the  press.  It  is  made 
of  brass  or  steel.  A 
more  convenient  (as 
well  as  more  expen- 
sive) article  is  Ames's 
Patent  Perforator:  its 
knife,  or  perforator,  lies  below  the  surface  of  the  type  while 
the  rollers  pass  over  the  form,  and  rises  and  makes  a  clean  cut 
when  the  impression  is  on,  without  injuring  the  rollers. 

Machines  for  per- 
forating round  holes 
are  manufactured  of 
several  sizes.  The 
lowest-p  r  i  c  e  d  ma- 
chine may  be  worked 
on  a  counter,  and  will 
perforate  every  kind 
of  card-board  or  pa- 
per. We  give  a  cut 
of  this  style. 

Imposing  Stones  may  be  had  with  drawers  and  cases  un- 
derneath; but  these  we  do  not  deem  advisable,  unless  the 
printer  be  cramped   in  room,  as  the  cases  may  be  wanted 

when  the  stone  is  in  use 
wliile  imposing  or  correct- 
ing forms.  For  common 
use,  the  plain  stone  with 
a  single  drawer,  and  with- 
out a  rim,  will  be  found 
the  nicest.  When  made 
otherwise,  the  rim  should 
be  fitted  snugly  to  the 
stone,  or  the  interstices 
will  become  filled  with 
types,  dropped  in  while 
IMPOSING  STONE.  correcting. 


ROUND    HOLE    PERFORATING    MACHINE. 


JOBBING  FACILITIES. 


309 


A  very  convenient 
device  for  the  com- 
positor is  the  Copy- 
Holder.  This,  how- 
ever, is  for  the  book 
compositor  rather 
than  for  the  jobber. 
Its  utility  consists  in 
bringing  the  copy 
nearer  to  the  eye  of 
the  workman,  and  in 
leaving  all  the  boxes 
at  command  and  un- 
covered by  the  manu- 
script or  printed  page.  There  is  also  a  Lamp-Holder  which 
will  be  found  handy  where  gas  is  not  accessible. 


RUGGLES   CARD   CUTTER. 


Card  Cutters  are 
made  of  several 
styles,  and  at  prices 
from  fourteen  dol- 
lars to  forty-five;  and 
Paper  Cutters  are 
yet  more  numerous, 
some  of  them  sim- 
ple and  low-priced, 
and  others  massive 
and  costing  twelve 
hundred  dollars.  We 
give  an  engraving 
of  one  of  moderate 
price.  An  extensive 
run  of  business  only 
would  require  the 
employment  of  a 
large  paper  cutter. 


MINERVA    CUTTING    MACHINE. 


JOBBING  FACILITIES. 


Several  contrivances  for  facilitating  press  operations  have 
been  invented.     We  may  mention  Megill's  Patent  Gauge  Pin, 


MEGILL'S    PATENT  GAUGE    PIN. 


EXTENSION    FEED-GUIDE. 


of  sizes  suitable  for  various  margins.     Two  small  teeth,  pro- 
jecting from  the  lower  side  of  the  head  of  the  pin,  press 

into  the  tympan  sheet 
and  prevent  the  gauge 
from  moving.  There  is 
also  the  Extension  Feed- 
Guide,  which  furnishes  a 
gauge  below  the  edge  of 
the  platen,  and  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  the  tympan-clamp. 

When  long  num- 
bers are  printed,  the 
Automatic     Counter 
iQ^il>^^3>W(Si'§BBB^S|B  niay  be  attached   to 

the  press.  It  counts 
only  when  the  form 
is  being  printed,  and 
shows  the  exact  number  in  plain  figures  up  to  100,000.  Se- 
veral styles  of  counting  machines  are  made. 

An  ink  fountain 
has  been  contrived 
for  attachment  to  the 
Gordon  job  press,  or 
any  other  press  with 
similar  plate  distribu- 
tion. It  is  quite  a 
cose  y  little  thing,  and 
is  operated  by  the 
impression  arm  of 
the  press. 


HART'S   COUNTER. 


PATENT    INK    FOUNTAIN. 


Iron  furniture  is  made  in  sets  containing  twenty-one  pieces, 
adapted  for  use  on  the  eighth,  cjuarter,  and  half  medium  job 
presses. 


USEFUL   RECEIPTS.'^^ 


PRINTERS'  ROLLERS.— JO  lbs.  French  or  Irish  heavy 
glue,  12  lbs.  sugar  or  good  quality  molasses,  and  3  lbs. 
glycerine.  This  will  be  sufficient  to  make  two  rollers  twenty- 
nine  by  three  and  one-half  inches,  and  can  be  readily  recast 
by  following  the  directions  given  for  recasting  rollers. 

Directions. — Soak  the  glue  the  necessary  length  of  time 
that  will  enable  it  to  melt  with  ease.  After  being  melted,  add 
the  glycerine,  and  boil  fifteen  minutes  or  until  thoroughly 
mixed,  when  the  sugar  or  molasses  may  be  added.  Cook 
and  stir  continuously  for  fifteen  minutes,  the  composition 
will  then  be  ready  for  pouring.  Strict  attention  should  be 
given  that  the  moulds  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  evenly 
oiled  previous  to  pouring. 


Cerma7i  Preservative  for  Rollers. — Corrosive  sublimate 
2  drachms,  fine  table  salt  2  oz. ;  put  together  in  half  a  gallon 
of  soft  water — let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours.  When  rollers 
are  clean  washed  with  ley,  sponge  them  with  the  above  mix- 
ture twice  a  week. 

Directions  for  Recasting  Rollers. — Sponge  the  face  of  the 
roller  with  hot  water;  scrape  off  the  face  thoroughly  with  a 
knife;  take  the  composition  off  the  stock  and  cut  it  up  small. 
If  the  roller  has  been  used  only  a  short  time,  it  may  be  melted 
about  as  readily  as  new  composition ;  if  it  is  older,  put  it  in  a 
sieve  or  basket  and  soak  it  in  cold  water  for  about  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes ;  take  it  out  of  the  water,  cover  with  a  damp 
cloth,  and  leave  over-night;  then  melt  as  usual.     If  composi- 

(')  Mostly  from  the  Paper  and  Printing  Trades  yournal,  London. 
27  311 


312  USEFUL  RECEIPTS. 

tion  is  too  hard,  wait  till  it  is  melted,  and  stir  in  a  sufificient 
quantity  of  common  molasses;  avoid  heavy,  clarified  syrups. 


Printers'  Ley. — No.  i. — Dissolve  28  lbs.  of  soda  in  52  gal- 
lons of  water,  to  which  add  7  lbs.  of  soft-soap,  boiled.  Stir 
well  together. 

Printers''  I^ey. — No.  2. — Boil  3  gallons  of  water  in  a  copper ; 
throw  in  while  boiling  Yz  lb.  of  unslacked  lime  and  2  lbs.  of 
common  soda;  stir  well  for  fifteen  minutes.  Let  it  settle  till 
cold,  when  it  must  be  taken  out  without  disturbing  the  sedi- 
ment, and  the  liquid  is  then  fit  for  use. 

Printers'  Ley. — No.  3. — Table  salt  2  oz.,  unslacked  lime  2  lb., 
Scotch  washing  soda  (bruised)  2  lb.  Put  together  in  3  gal- 
lons of  water,  stir  well ;   when  settled,  ready  for  use. 

Note. — This  ley,  if  prepared  carefully,  is  very  strong,  and  will  wash  off  almost 
any  colour. 

A  Strotig  White  Paste. — Dissolve  2%  oz.  of  gum-arabic  in 
2  quarts  of  water,  and  stir  it  into  i  pound  of  wheat  flour  until 
the  whole  becomes  of  a  pasty  consistency.  It  is  then  to  be 
heated,  and  i%  oz.  each  of  sugar  of  lead  and  alum  dissolved 
in  a  little  water  added  thereto,  and  the  composition  well  stirred 
until  it  shows  signs  of  boiling,  when  it  must  be  removed  from 
the  fire.  Add  while  hot  6  drops  of  carbolic  acid.  This  is  a 
very  tenacious  and  durable  paste,  and  may  be  used  on  almost 
any  substance. 

Pastes  for  Fixing  Labels  on  Glass. — No.  i. — Take  of  gum- 
arabic  I  oz.,  boiling  water  and  glycerine  2  fluid  ounces  each. 
Make  a  solution. 

No.  2. — Take  of  gum-arabic  and  powdered  gum  tragacanth 
Yz  oz.  each,  water  lY^  oz.,  acetic  acid  20  drops.  Mi.\.  The 
acid  is  used  to  prevent  chemical  change,  although  a  stiff  paste 
made  of  tragacanth  alone  is  not  inclined  to  spoil  by  fermen- 
tation. 

To  Make  a  good  Mucilage. — The  best  quality  of  mucilage  is 
made  by  dissolving  clear  glue  in  equal  volumes  of  water  and 
strong  vinegar,  and  adding  one-fourth  of  an  equal  volume  of 
alcohol,  and  a  small  quantity  of  a  solution  of  alum  in  water. 


USEFUL  RECEIPTS.  313 

The  action  of  the  vinegar  is  due  to  the  acetic  acid  which  it 
contains.  This  prevents  the  composition  from  gelatinizing  by 
cooling;  but  the  same  result  may  be  accomplished  by  add- 
ing a  small  quantity  of  nitric  acid.  Some  of  the  preparations 
offered  for  sale  are  merely  boiled  starch,  or  flour,  mixed  with 
nitric  acid  to  prevent  the  gelatinizing. 


Liquid  Glue. — Take  some  good  strong  glue  and  mix  it  with 
full  proof  whisky.  Let  it  digest  for  three  or  four  days,  and  it 
will  be  ready  for  use. 

Strong  Mucilage. — The  yoiirnal  de  Pharmacie  states  that 
if,  to  a  strong  solution  of  gum-arabic  measuring  8j^  fluid  oz., 
a  solution  of  30  grains  of  sulphate  of  aluminium  dissolved  in 
^3  of  an  oz.  of  water  be  added,  a  very  strong  mucilage  is 
formed,  capable  of  fastening  wood  together,  or  mending  por- 
celain or  glass. 

Gum  for  Backing  Labels. — Take  any  quantity  of  clear,  pure 
dextrine  and  mix  it  with  boiling  water  until  it  assumes  the 
consistency  of  ordinary  mucilage.  Apply  thinly  with  a  full- 
bodied,  evenly  made,  and  wide  camel's-hair  brush.  The  paper 
should  not  be  too  thin  or  unsized.  The  preparation  will  dry 
quickly,  and  adhere  when  slightly  wet. 

Note. — No  more  of  the  dextrine  should  be  inixed  at  one  time  than  can  be  used 
at  once,  as  it  cannot  be  remelted  easily. 


Mucilage  for  Postage  Stamps,  Envelopes,  etc.,  is  composed 
of  dextrine  2  parts,  acetic  acid  i  part,  alcohol  i  part,  water 
5  parts.  

Commoft  Prepared  Glue. — Dissolve  2  lbs.  good  common 
glue  in  3  pints  warm  water,  and  add  i  quart  of  strong  vine- 
gar.    Ready  to  use  after  twenty-four  hours. 


For  snaking  3Tagenta  Surface  Paper. — lyi  oz.  of  Magenta, 
(aniline,)  %  oz.  Bismarck  brown,  (aniline,)  i  cake  of  glue;  put 
these  into  4  gallons  of  boiling  water.  Coat  the  paper  with  this, 
using  an  8-inch  double-filled  camel's-hair  brush.  Quantity 
given  will  coat  two  reams  of  double-crown.  A  hard-sized 
paper  must  be  used. 


314  USEFUL  RECEIPTS. 


Coloured  Writing  Inks. — The  following  receipts  have  been 
well  tested,  and  are  commended  by  good  authorities  as  pre- 
ferable to  the  solutions  of  aniline  dyes,  which  are  now  so 
extensively  used  as  coloured  inks : — 

Green. — Two  parts  acetate  of  copper,  one  part  carbonate 
of  potash,  and  eight  parts  of  water.  Boil  until  half  evapo- 
rated, and  filter. 

Blue. — Three  parts  Prussian  blue,  one  part  oxalic  acid,  and 
thirty  parts  of  water.  When  dissolved,  add  one  part  of  gum- 
arabic. 

Yellow. — One  part  fine  orpiment,  well  rubbed  up  with  four 
parts  thick  gum  water. 

Red. — With  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat,  dissolve  four  grains  of 
carmine  in  i  oz.  of  aqua  ammoniae,  and  add  6  grains  of  gum- 
arabic. 

Gold. — Rub  gold  leaf,  such  as  is  used  by  bookbinders,  with 
honey,  till  it  forms  a  uniform  mixture.  When  the  honey  has 
been  washed  out  with  water,  the  gold  powder  will  settle  at  the 
bottom,  and  must  be  mixed  with  gum  water  in  sufficient 
quantity. 

SiLVER.^Silver  leaf  treated  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
gives  a  silver  ink.  Both  these  inks  may  be  polished  with  ivory 
when  dry. 

Black. — Three  ounces  crushed  gall-nuts,  two  ounces  crys- 
tallized sulphate  of  iron,  two  ounces  gum-arabic,  and  twenty- 
four  ounces  water. 

White. — Fine  French  zinc-white,  or  white  lead,  nibbed  up 
with  gum  water  to  the  proper  consistency. 


Fireproof  Ink. — Fireproof  ink,  which  can  be  used  either  for 
writing  or  printing: — Copal  12  grains,  graj^hite  22  drachms, 
sulphate  of  iron  2  drachms,  tincture  of  nut-galls  2  drachms,  and 
sulphate  of  indigo  8  drachms ;  these  are  thoroughly  mixed  and 
boiled  in  water,  and  the  ink  so  obtained  is  said  to  be  botii  fire- 
proof and  insoluble  in  water.  When  any  other  colour  than 
black  is  desired,  the  graphite  is  replaced  by  any  other  mineral 
pigment  of  the  required  colour. 


Printing:  Ink  Varnish. — Printing  ink  varnish  is  made  by 
adding  4  oz.  of  boiled  linseed  or  neat's-foot  oil  to  6  oz.  of 
yellow  rosin. 


USEFUL  RECEIPTS.  315 

Lithographic  Transfer  Ink. — Three  parts  gum  copal,  5  parts 
wax,  5  purified  tallow,  4  soap,  5  shellac,  5  mastic,  and  one-half 
part  sulphur.  The  copal  is  to  be  melted  in  a  copper  vessel, 
mixing  in  a  little  sweet  oil,  add  the  wax  and  tallow,  and  when 
these  are  well  melted,  light  the  mass  and  throw  in  the  soap, 
well  dried  and  cut  in  small  pieces,  then  the  shellac  and  mastic. 
The  flame  is  to  be  increased  by  the  addition  of  the  flowers 
of  sulphur,  and  so  a  perfect  mixture  of  the  copal  with  the  other 
substances  will  be  attained.  The  flame  is  to  be  alternately 
kindled  and  extinguished  till  the  whole  mass  is  reduced  to 
one-fourth  of  its  former  bulk. 


To  give  dark  Printing  Inks  a  Bronze  or  Changeable  Hue. — 
Take  lyi  lb.  gum  shellac  and  dissolve  it  in  i  gallon  95  per 
cent,  alcohol  spirits  of  cologne  for  24  hours ;  then  add  14  oz. 
aniline  red;  let  it  stand  a  few  hours  longer,  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use.  Add  this  to  good  blue,  black,  or  other  dark 
inks,  as  needed,  in  quantities  to  suit,  when,  if  carefully  done, 
they  will  be  found  to  have  a  rich  bronze  or  changeable  hue. 


An  Ink  for  Marking  Tin  or  Zinc. — An  ink  composed  of 
copper  one  part,  dissolved  in  ten  parts  nitric  acid,  ten  parts 
water  being  afterward  added,  is  useful  for  marking  on  tin 
or  zinc. 

Quick-drying  Preparations  for  Printers'  Inks  to  be  used  on 
Bookbinders''  Cases. — i  oz.  beeswax,  %  oz.  gum-arabic  dis- 
solved in  sufficient  acetic  acid  to  make  a  thin  mucilage,  ]4-  oz. 
Brown's  Japan,  %  oz.  asphaltum  varnish.  Incorporate  with 
I  lb.  of  wood-cut  ink. 


A  Dryer. — No.  i,  for  fine  job  work.  Damar  varnish  6  oz., 
bergamot  2  drachms,  balsam  copaiba  2  drachms,  balsam  of 
fir  3  oz.,  creosote  i  drachm,  copal  varnish  i  drachm.  To 
enough  ink  for  1000  ordinary  business  cards,  add  from  S  to  12 
drops  of  the  "Indispensable,"  and  to  larger  quantities  in  pro- 
portion. When  used  for  bronze,  dry  colours,  diamond  printing, 
etc.,  take  twice  the  quantity ;  and  where  an  extra  quick  dryer 
is  desired,  add  a  few  drops  of  dissolved  gum-arabic  to  the  ink, 
after  it  has  been  mixed  with  No.  i.  In  all  cases,  mix  well  with 
the  ink  before  applying  to  the  rollers. 


31 6  USEFUL  RECEIPTS. 

Dryer. — No.  2. — For  news  and  poster  ink.  Spirits  of  tur- 
pentine I  qt.,  balsam  copaiba  6  oz.  Add  a  sufficient  quantity 
to  the  ink  to  thin  it  to  a  proper  consistency  for  working. 


Silvering  Sohdioii  for  Electrotype  Plates. — Nitrate  of  silver 
2  drachms,  distilled  water  37  drachms.  Dissolve  and  add  sal 
ammoniac  i  drachm,  hypophosphate  of  soda  4  drachms,  pre- 
cipitated chalk  4  drachms.  Agitate  the  preparation  occasion- 
ally for  twelve  hours,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Apply 
with  a  piece  of  tine  sponge. 


How  to  coat  Electrotypes  with  ^zYz/^r.— Electrotypes  can  be 
coated  with  silver  (for  working  with  red  ink)  in  the  following 
manner :  One  part  copper,  5  parts  pure  tin  ;  this  alloy  to  be 
granulated,  not  too  fine,  and  mixed  with  water  and  cream  of 
tartar  into  a  paste.  To  each  200  parts  of  the  granulated  alloy 
add  I  part  oxide  silver,  the  electro  is  then  laid  in  it,  and  boiled 
for  a  short  time,  when  it  will  be  found  to  be  beautifully  plated. 
Fresh  oxide  must  be  added  from  time  to  time.  This  coating 
is  quite  equal  in  durability  to  silver  or  tin. 

To  soften  Leather  Belting.— Castor  oil  is  a  good  article  for 
keeping  leather  belting  soft  and  pliable. 


Hozu  to  open  a  Ball  of  Tzvine.—K  ball  of  twine,  if  opened 
from  the  inside,  will  run  off  easily  enough  and  give  no  trouble 
in  the  untwining ;  but  if  begun  from  the  outside,  it  will  speedily 
get  tangled  and  knotted. 

To  prevent  Adhesion.— U.  Garde,  in  Vlmprimerie,  tells 
paper-makers  how  to  obviate  the  inconvenience  of  the  adhe- 
sion together  of  sized  papers,  on  damping,  by  the  coagulation 
of  the  size.  This  is  effected  in  the  mills,  by  dipping  the  sheets 
in  a  solution  of  alum  or  tannin.  A  secondary  advantage  ob- 
tained is  that  the  paper  becomes  tougher. 

To  detect  ground  Wood  in  Baper.—M\\  three  parts  of 
strong  nitric  acid  with  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid :  a  drop  of 
this  solution  will  immediately  turn  paper  containing  an  ad- 
mixture of  ground  wood  a  brown  colour. 


USEFUL  RECEIPTS.  317 

French  Gold  Printing. — French  copal  varnish  i  oz.,  mas- 
tic varnish  %  of  an  oz. ;  mix  together  and  add  twenty  drops 
to  the  black  ink  table,  and  distribute;  take  an  impression  and 
apply,  with  wool,  gold  leaf,  Dutch  metal,  or  bronze.  Apply 
the  bronze  with  cotton  wool  and  rub  hard  over  the  black  ink. 
After  each  fifty  printed,  wipe  off  the  superfluous  gold  from  the 
type  with  a  silk  handkerchief. 


Transfer  Varnish. — Take  equal  quantities  of  fir  balsam 
and  spirits  turpentine.  Mix,  shake  well,  and  set  in  a  warm 
place  until  clear.  Used  in  decalcomania,  and  for  maps,  prints, 
drawings,  and  other  articles  of  paper;  and  also  to  prepare 
tracing  papers,  and  to  transfer  engravings. 


To  make  Paper  Waterproof. — Dissolve  8  oz.  of  alum  and 
2,%.  oz.  of  white  soap  in  4  pints  of  water.  In  another  vessel 
dissolve  2  oz.  of  gum-arabic  and  4  oz.  of  glue  in  4  pints  of 
water.  Mix  the  two  solutions  and  heat  them  over  the  fire. 
Then  immerse  the  paper,  sheet  by  sheet,  in  the  hot  liquid,  then 
hang  them  up  edgewise  to  dry,  or  pass  them  between  heated 
cylinders. 

Books  Preseri'cd. — The  bindings  may  be  preserved  from 
mildew  by  brushing  them  over  with  the  spirits  of  wine.  A 
few  drops  of  any  perfumed  oil  will  secure  libraries  from  the 
consuming  effects  of  mould  and  damp.  Russia  leather,  which 
is  perfumed  with  the  tar  of  the  birch  tree,  never  moulds  or 
sustains  injury  from  damp.  The  Romans  used  oil  of  cedar  to 
preserve  valuable  manuscripts.  Russia  leather  covered  books 
placed  in  a  stationer's  window  will  destroy  flies  and  other 
insects.  

To  restore  Engravings,  etc. — Old  engravings,  wood-cuts, 
or  printed  matter,  that  have  turned  yellow,  may  be  rendered 
white  by  first  washing  carefully  in  water  containing  a  little 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  and  then  dipping  for  a  minute  in  Javelle 
water.  To  prepare  the  latter,  put  4  lbs.  bicarbonate  of  soda 
in  a  kettle  over  a  fire ;  add  i  gallon  of  boiling  water,  and  let 
it  boil  for  fifteen  minutes.  Then  stir  in  i  lb.  of  pulverized 
chloride  of  lime.  When  cold,  the  liquid  can  be  kept  in  a  jug 
ready  for  use. 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 


A  THOROUGH  reformation  of  the  orthography  of  the 
Enghsh  language,  desirable  as  it  is,  can  scarcely  be  hoped 
for  in  this  century;  though  doubtless  the  time  will  come  when 
an  international  convention  will  settle  authoritatively  the 
spelling  of  every  word,  as  acceptably  as  has  been  done  by  the 
Academies  of  France  and  Spain  in  regard  to  the  orthography 
of  the  languages  of  those  countries. 


A  or  AN  before  a  Voivel  or  silent  h. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article.  Walker's  Dic- 
tionary very  judiciously  says, — 

"This  indefinite,  and,  as  it  may  be  called,  the  euphonic 
article,  is  said  by  all  our  grammarians  to  be  used  before  a 
vowel  or  h  mute;  but  no  notice  is  taken  of  using  a  instead  of 
an  before  what  is  called  a  vowel,  as,  a  useful  book,  a  useful  cere- 
mony, a  usurer,  &c. ;  nor  is  any  mention  made  of  its  constant 
usage  before  /;  when  it  is  not  mute,  if  the  accent  of  the  word 
be  on  the  second  syllable,  as,  a7i  heroic  action,  att  historical 
account,  &c.  This  want  of  accuracy  arises  from  a  want  of 
analyzing  the  vowels,  and  not  attending  sufficiently  to  the 
influence  of  accent  on  pronunciation.  A  proper  investigation 
of  the  power  of  the  vowels  would  have  informed  our  gram- 
marians that  the  letter  u,  when  long,  is  not  so  properly  a 
vowel  as  a  semi-consonant,  and  perfectly  equivalent  to  com- 
mencing j,  and  that  a  feeling  of  this  has  insensibly  influenced 
the  best  speakers  to  prefix  a  to  it  in  their  conversation,  while 
a  confused  idea  of  the  general  rule,  arising  from  an  ignorance 
of  the  nature  of  the  letters,  has  generally  induced  them  to 
prefix  an  to  it  in  writing.  The  same  observations  are  appli- 
318 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL.  319 

cable  to  the  h.  The  ear  alone  tells  us  that,  before  heroic,  his- 
torical, &c.,  the  an  ought  invariably  to  be  used;  but,  by  not 
discovering  tliat  it  is  the  absence  of  accent  on  the  h  that  makes 
an  admissible  in  these  words,  we  are  apt  to  prefix  an  to  words 
where  the  /;  is  sounded,  as,  an  horse,  an  house,  &c.,  and  thus 
set  our  spoken  and  written  language  at  variance.  The  article 
a  must  be  used  before  all  words  beginning  with  a  consonant, 
and  before  the  vowel  11  when  long;  and  the  article  an  must  be 
used  before  all  words  beginning  with  a  vowel,  except  long  u; 
before  words  beginning  with  h  mute,  as,  ati  hour,  an  heir,  &c. ; 
or  before  words  where  the  h  is  not  mute,  if  the  accent  be  on 
the  second  syllable,  as,  an  heroic  action,  an  historical  accoimt, 
&c."  The  few  words  in  our  language  in  which  the  h  is  mute 
are  heir,  herb,  honest,  honour,  hospital,  hostler,  hour,  humble, 
humour,  and  their  derivatives. 


Oh  should  be  used  to  express  surprise,  pain,  sorrow,  or 
anxiety.  When  the  interjection  is  followed  by  a  proper  name, 
or  as  an  exclamation  of  wishing  the  O  should  be  employed 
singly,  thus:  O  mother  dear,  jferusaleni!  O  Lord!  O  that 
I  viight  find  him. 

ABLE   and  IBLE. 

All  English  words,  without  regard  to  the  source  from  which 
they  have  been  derived,  and  those  which  come  from  Latin 
words  ending  in  abilis  or  French  ones  in  able,  take  the  termi- 
nation able  in  English,  as,  procurable,  amendable,  desirable, 
allocvable,  voidable,  available,  fordable,  incontestable,  &c. ;  but 
in  words  from  Latin  and  French  words  terminating  in  ibilis 
or  ible,  then  the  ending  will  be  ible  in  English.  For  instance: 
accessible,  sensible,  defensible,  convertible,  &c. 

In  words  ending  in  ce  ox  ge,  the  final  e  is  preserved  before 
the  termination  able,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  soft 
sound  of  the  consonant,  as  in  marriageable,  chargeable,  trace- 
able, serviceable,  &c. ;  but  before  the  ending  ible  the  final  e  of 
the  primitive  disappears,  and  there  is  no  e  before  the  termina- 
tion.    Examples:  deducible,  reducible, frangible,  &c. 

The  following  list  of  words  in  ible  is  here  added;  all  others 
end  in  able : — 


320 

OR  THO  GRAPHICAL. 

accessible 

deceptible 

expressible 

persuasible 

admissible 

decerptible 

extendible 

pervertible 

adustible 

decoctible 

extensible 

plausible 

appetible 

deducible 

fallible 

possible 

apprehensible 

defeasible 

feasible 

producible 

audible 

defectible 

fencible 

quadrible 

cessible 

defensible 

flexible 

reducible 

coercible 

depectible 

forcible 

referrible 

collectible 

deprehensible 

frangible 

reflexible 

comminuible 

descendible 

fusible 

refrangible 

compatible 

destructible 

horrible 

regible 

competible 

digestible 

ignoscible 

remissible 

comprehensible 

discernible 

illegible 

reprehensible 

compressible 

discerptible 

immarcessible 

resistible 

conceptible 

dispraisible 

immiscible  W 

responsible 

conclusible 

dissolvible 

impassible  (2) 

reversible 

congestible 

distensible 

intelligible 

revertible 

contemptible 

divisible 

irascible 

risible 

contractible 

docible 

legible 

seducible 

controvertible 

edible 

miscible 

sensible 

convertible 

effectible 

partible 

solvible 

convincible 

eligible 

passible  W 

tangible 

corrigible 

eludible 

perceptible 

terrible 

corrosible 

enforcible 

perraiscible 

transmissible 

corruptible 

evincible 

permissible 

visible 

credible 

expansible 

IM  or  IN,  and  em  or  en. 

The  prefix  ifi  is  from  the  Latin,  and  that  of  en  from  the 
French  and  Greek.  In  generally  signifies  situation,  and  en 
mostly  expresses  action.  Hence,  perhaps,  in  strictness,  inclose 
will  signify  "to  close  in,"  and  eticlose,  "to  make  close."  So, 
to  ifiqnire  will  be  "  to  seek  in,  or  to  search  in,"  and  enquire,  to 
"make  search."  I»unio;rate,  "to  pass  into;"  emigrate,  "to  go 
out  of."  But  this  distinction  is  not  attended  to  by  writers,  and 
is,  indeed,  too  refined  for  general  practice. 

Before  the  letters  b  and  />,  en  becomes  em,  as  in  embattle, 
empozver ;  and  hi  before  some  letters  becomes  ig,  il,  im,  or  ir, 
as  in  ignoble,  illegal,  improper,  irresolute. 

We  give  a  list  of  those  generally  spelt  with  /;;/  or  /;/  /  leaving 
it  to  be  inferred  that  the  rest  are  more  usual  with  em  or  en. 


(')  For  other  words  beginning  with  im,  in,  ir,  or  un  negative,  look  for  the  simple 
word. 

(*)  Incapable  of  suffering.  (=>)  Capable  of  suffering. 


OR  THO  GRAPHICAL. 

321 

imbarn 

impel 

indict 

initiate 

instop 

imbibe 

impen 

indite 

inject 

insure 

Imboil 

imperil 

indoctrinate 

inlapidate 

inter 

imbound 

impinge 

indrench 

inlay 

intertwine 

imbrue 

implant 

induce 

inlet 

intort 

imbrute 

implead 

induct 

inoculate 

intreasure 

imbue 

import 

ineye 

inosculate 

intrench 

imburse 

impose 

infer 

inquire 

intrude 

immanacle 

impound 

infest 

inrail 

intrust 

immense 

impregnate 

infix 

inscribe 

inumbrate 

immerge 

impress 

inflame 

insculp 

inure 

immerse 

imprint 

inflate 

inseam 

inurn 

immigrate 

imprison 

inflect 

insert 

invade 

immingle 

inarch 

inflict 

inset 

inveigh 

immit 

incase 

infringe 

inshell 

invert 

immix 

inclasp 

infuscate 

inship 

invest 

immure 

inclip 

infuse 

insinew 

invigorate 

impact 

incloud 

ingrane 

insphere 

invite 

impale 

include 

ingest 

inspire 

invocate 

imparadise 

incrassate 

inhabit 

inspirit 

invoice 

impassioned 

increase 

inhale 

install 

invoke 

impawn 

incur 

inhere 

instate 

inwall 

impeach 

indart 

inhold 

insteep 

inweave 

irapearl 

indent 

inhume 

IN  arid  UN. 

instil 

/;/,  as  a  prefix,  also  marks  negation:  it  is  probable  that  it 
came  from  the  Romans.  Un,  as  a  prefix,  is  synonymous  with 
in:  it  is  of  Saxon  origin,  and  generally  joined  to  words  from 
a  northern  source ;  while  in  is  oftener  applied  to  those  of  Latin 
derivation. 


ISE  and  izE. 

The  variation  in  the  terminations  ise  and  ize  is  due  to  the 
different  derivations  of  words, — ize  characterizing  words  from 
the  Greek  and  Latin,  and  ise  from  the  French.  The  rule,  how- 
ever, is  not  inflexible.  The  following  words  are  commonly 
spelled  with  the  s. 


advertise 

advise 

affranchise 

aggrandise 

amortise 

catechise 

chastise 

circumcise 


comprise 

compromise 

criticise 

demise 

despise 

devise 

disfranchise 

disguise 


divertise 

emprise 

enfranchise 

enterprise 

exercise 

exorcise 

galliardise 

manumise 


merchandise 

misprise  (mistake) 

premise 

recognise 

reprise  (take  again) 

supervise 

surmise 

surprise 


322 


OR  THO  GRAPHICAL. 


OR  and  OUR. 

The  ending  our  was  in  general  use  until  the  appearance  of 
Webster's  Dictionary,  in  which  the  u  was  dropped  in  words 
terminating  with  our.  This  innovation  has  steadily  gained 
ground.  We  do  not  approve  of  partial  tinkerings  with  English 
orthography;  and,  until  a  general  convention  of  British  and 
American  scholars  settle  the  method  of  spelling  English 
words,  we  shall  adhere  to  the  established  usage.  We  append 
a  list  of  words  terminating  in  our. 


arbour 

colour 

fervour 

odour 

splendour 

ardour 

contour 

flavour 

parlour 

succour 

armour 

demeanour 

harbour 

rancour 

tambour 

behaviour 

dishonour 

honour 

rigour 

tumour 

candour 

dolour 

humour 

rumour 

valour 

clamour 

endeavour 

labour 

savour 

vapour 

clangour 

favour 

neighbour 

saviour 

vigour 

The  u  is  dropped  when  the  termination  ous  is  added  to  any 
of  these  words ;  as,  clamorous,  dolorous,  humorous,  laborious, 
odorous,  rancorous,  rigorous,  valorous,  vigorous.  And  also  in 
derivative  words ;  such  as  annory,  honorary,  &c. 

SIGN  and  TioN. 

Primitive  ivords  which  end  in  d,  dc.ge,  mil,  rt,  sc,  or  ss,  take 
sion  in  their  derivatives ;  but  all  other  words  have  lion. 


EXAMPLES. 


abscin</,  abscission 
condescend',  condescension 
cva.de,  evasion 
xnlrutie ,  intrusion 
absterf^,  abstersion 
emerge,  emersion 
admit,  admission 
remit,  remission 


reverb,  reversion 
convert,  conversion 
confuj?,  confusion 
r<t\\se,  revision 
imprei^j,  impression 
confer  J,  confession 
admijr,  admixtion 
promo/<r,  promotion 


IRREGULARS. 


adhesion 

cohesion 

compulsion 

declension 

decursion 

depulsion 

dissension 


divulsion 

evulsion 

exesion 

expulsion 

impulsion 

incursion 

propulsion 


recension 

recursion 

revulsion 

scansion 

tension 

transcunion 

version 


attention 

causation 

distention 

distortion 

coercion 

suspicion 

crucifixion 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL.  323 


FARTHER  and  FURTHER. 

Farther  is  nowadays  only  employed  when  speaking  of  dis- 
tance;  in  all  other  acceptations  of  the  word,  further  is  gene- 
rally adopted. 

PEAS  arid  PEASE. 

There  are  scarcely  any  words  in  which  a  mistake  is  more 
frequently  made  than  in  peas  2l\\6.  pease.  Yet  the  distinction 
between  them  is  simple  and  well  defined.  Peas  is  the  plural 
oi  pea,  and,  consequently,  only  follows  ««7«^rrt/ adjectives; 
as,  "/^wpeas,"  "a /?««i/rifa?peas,"  "a_/"^6£'peas,"  "  wfl';r)/peas;" 
hvX  pease  is  used  when  speaking  of  the  legumen  in  the  aggre- 
gate, or  generally.  Thus,  we  correctly  say,  ''Pease  are  dear 
this  year,"  ''Pease  were  plentifully  supplied  to  the  horses,"  &c. 

Pease  is  also  employed  adjectively;  as,  "/>^a.y(?-pudding," 
"/^a^d'-soup,"  or  "/^a-soup,"  &c. 

The  Omission  of  s  in  the  Possessive  Case. 

It  is  not  uncommon  with  some  persons  to  omit  the  ^  after 
the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  case  of  nouns,  if  the  name 
itself  ends  in  s ;  as,  " jfarnes''  book,"  "Barnes''  Notes."  But 
this  is  incorrect;  for  if  we  ask.  Whose  book?  we  should 
directly  answer,  James's.  The  only  case  when  the  .s  can  be 
judiciously  omitted,  and  this  solely  to  avoid  the  too  hissing 
sound  of  so  many  i^'s  in  succession,  is  when  the  first  word 
ends  with  the  sound  of  s  in  its  last  two  syllables,  and  the  next 
word  begins  with  s ;  as  in  Misses'  spectacles,  righteousness'' 
sake,  conscience'  sake. 

Formation  of  the  Plurals  of  Words  compou7ided  of  a  Noiai 

and  an  Adjective. 

Adjectives  have  no  plural  number.     Therefore,  in  a  word 

compounded  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  the  s  denoting  the 

plural  number  is  attached  to  the  end  of  the  noun,  as  follows: — 

Governor-general Governors-general. 

Attorney-general Attorneys-general. 

Court-martial Courts-martial. 

But  where  the  adjective  is  taken  substantively,  the  mark  of 
the  plural  will  properly  follow  it.  For  example :  Brigadier- 
generals,  major-generals,  lieutenant-getierals. 


OR  THO  GRAPHICAL. 


Words  compounded  of  a  noun  and  the  adjective//^//  form 
their  plurals  thus:  spoonfuls,  ciipfuls,  bucket/ ids,  handfiih, 
mouthfuls. 

Pointing  of  Numbers,  Weights,  Measures,  &c. 

No  comma  should  be  placed  between  the  constituent  parts 
of  the  same  number,  however  long  rt  may  be.  Thus,  we  say, 
"One  million  one  hundred  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty- 
one,"  without  any  interpunction.  The  reason  is,  that  there  is 
no  more  than  one  numerical  aggregate  intended,  or  but  one 
complex  notion;  and,  consequently,  no  separation  of  parts  or 
members  can  take  place.  The  same  reasoning  holds  good  as 
respects  values,  zueights,  &c.  For  instance,  when  we  say,  "  Six 
dollars  and  ten  cents,"  we  merely  mean  that  aggregate  amount, 
but  not  necessarily  any  one  of  the  coins  indicated.  If  we  did 
so  intend,  then  two  commas  should  be  introduced, — one  after 
"dollars,"  and  the  other  after  "cents."  In  like  manner  we 
should  act  with  such  sentences  as,  "Five  tons  three  hundred- 
weight two  quarters  and  fifteen  pounds ;"  or,  "  Ten  acres  four 
roods  and  twenty-seven  perches;"  and  for  the  same  reason: 
no  division  of  parts  is  intended,  but  merely  one  aggregate 
amount. 

When  figures  are  used  to  express  amounts,  a  comma  should 
not  be  inserted  to  cut  off  the  tens  unless  the  sum  requires  five 
figures:  e.g.  $10,600,  20,000  men,  &c.  In  column  matter  this 
rule  will  not  apply. 

Derivation  of  English  Words. 

Of  course  the  Saxon  forms  the  basis  of  our  language  in  its 
essential  parts,  and  is  the  source  whence  we  derive  the  greater 
part  of  our  ordinary  and  most  emphatic  words.  Nevertheless, 
various  other  languages  have  been  put  under  contribution, 
especially  the  French,  Latin,  and  Greek.  This  will  be  evident 
from  the  following  statement  of  derivations,  which  will  show 
the  unlearned  reader  how  important  it  is  to  him  that  he  sliould 
acquire  some  knowledge  of  those  languages,  if  he  desires  to 
attain  to  a  thorough  proficiency  in  his  business  as  an  educated 
printer. 

I.  From  the  Greek  are  derived — 

I.  Words  ending  in  gram,  graph,  M\(\graphy  ;  as,  telegram. 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL.  325 

telegraph,  geography,  &c. ;    from  the  word  }pd(p(J,  {grapho,) 
I  write,  and  some  other  Greek  word. 

2.  Those  in  goti ;  from  jon-Za,  {go/iia,)  an  angle;  as,  octagon. 

3.  All  words  in /f^/^^  or /c^/  a.?,,  epilogue,  astrology  ;  from 
16yoq,  {logos,)  a  discourse. 

4.  /<:,  zV/^,  2V.y  are  also  Greek  terminations,  generally  of 
adjectives. 

5.  Words  in  meter  are  all  of  Greek  origin,  coming  from  the 
verb  /lerpcj,  {metro,}  I  measure,  in  combination  with  some  other 
word. 

6.  Most  words  into  which  the  terminations  agogue,  asis, 
esis,  or  ysis  enter  are  also  of  Greek  origin ;  such  as  demagogue, 
emphasis,  parenthesis,  analysis,  &c. 

11.  But  the  main  source  whence  we  have  derived  words, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Saxon,  is  the  Latin,  as  will  appear 
from  an  inspection  of  the  following  list: — 

1.  Words  ending  in  ance,  ancy,  or  ant,  and  ence,  ejtcy,  or  ent, 
come  from  Latin  words  ending  respectively  in  ans,  antia,  or 
ens,  entia;  as,  abundance,  from  abundantia ;  infancy,  from  in- 
f antia ;  abundant,  from  abundans ;  absence,  from  absentia; 
excellency,  from  excellentia;  and  excellent,  from  ex ce liens. 

2.  Words  in  a/ have  their  Latin  representatives  in  alis ;  as, 
corporal,  from  corporalis. 

3.  Verbs  in  ate  mostly  come  from  Latin  verbs  of  the  first 
conjugation ;  as,  moderate,  from  modero. 

4.  Words  in  ator  are  generally  the  same  in  both  languages; 
as,  orator,  senator,  moderator. 

5.  The  termination  id  comes  mostly  from  Latin  words  end- 
ing in  idus ;  as,  acid,  from  acidus  ;  but  sometimes  words  of  this 
ending  are  of  Greek  origin;  as,  oxide,  (more  correctly,  oxyd,) 
from  o^vi,  {oxys ;)  and,  indeed,  most  scientific  words  of  this  end- 
ing; as,  carotid,  from  KapunSec,  &c. ;  rhomboid,  from  pofxiSneiSr/c. 

6.  //or  He  is  likewise  from  the  Latin  termination  of  adjec- 
tives in  His;  as,  docile,  from  docilis ;  civil,  from  civilis. 

7.  The  Latin  termination  osus  has  its  English  representa- 
tive in  ious  or  ous;  as,  copious,  from  copiosus ;  numerous, 
from  numerosus.  But  sometimes  the  English  ending  ous 
comes  from  a  Latin  word  in  ax  ;  as,  capacious,  from  capax. 

8.  The  Latin  ending  io  has  its  English  corresponding  word 
in  ion ;  as,  nation,  from  natio ;  oration,  from  or  alio. 


326  ORTHO  GRA  PHICA  L . 

9.  The  endings  ne,  re,  and  te  after  a  vowel  are  also  for  the 
greater  part  of  Latin  origin;  as,,  fortune,  irom/ortiina;  aqui- 
line, from  aqiiiliniis  ;  culture,  from  cultura  ;  pure,  ivoiw  purus  ; 
complete,  from  completus,  &c. 

ID.  Words  in  ty  come  from  Latin  words  in  las;  as,  equality, 
from  cequalitas ;  bounty,  from  bonitas;  rarity,  from  raritas,  &c. 

11.  The  termination  ude  is  also  of  Latin  origin,  coming 
from  words  in  udo;  as,  fortitude,  horn  fortitudo ;  elude,  from 
eludo. 

12.  So  also  is  uous,  by  inserting  the  letter  o;  as,  ambiguous, 
from  ambiguus ;  continuous,  from  continims,  &c. 

IIL  From  the  French  have  come — 

I.  INIost  of  our  words  in  age ;  as,  page,  rage,  usage. 

1.  All  those  in  eau;  as,  beau,  flambeau,  &c. 

3.  The  French  esse  is  represented  by  the  English  ess:  as, 
princess,  ivom  princesse. 

4.  Words  in  que  mostly  come  to  us  from  the  French  directly ; 
some  from  the  Latin  directly  or  indirectly ;  as,  antique,  (L.  anti- 
quus,  F.  antique,)  oblique,  opaque. 

5.  Words  ending  in  mcnt  are  nearly  the  same  in  both  lan- 
guages; as,  co)nmencement,  xdvancement,  (F,  avancement,)  &c. 


We  subjoin  some  rules  for  spelling,  adapted   from  Laid- 
law's  ^Imcrican  Pronouncing  Dictionary. '^'^'^ 


RULE    I. 

Words  ending  in  silent  e  after  u  or  a  consonant  generally 
drop  the  e  on  taking  an  additional  termination  beginning  with 
a  vowel;  as,  sa\it,  salable ;  \y\a<g\x>i.,  plaguy ;  sue,  sui fig;  eye, 
eying. 

Exception  I. — Words  ending  in  ce  and  ^f  retain  e  before  iiih'  and  cus  :  as,  ser- 
vice, serviccati/e;  lTa.ze,  traceable:  courage,  courageous;  a.dv3Mta^e,  adziantageous. 

Exception  II. — Compounds  and  prefixes  retain  e;  as,  firearms,  foreordain, 
pole-axe,  vice-admiral,  fire-engine. 

(1)  Published  by  E.  C.  Markley  &  Son,  Philadelphia.     An  excellent  book. 


OR  THO  GRAPHICAL.  327 


Remark. — From  singe,  springe,  swinge,  tinge,  we  write  singeing,  springeing, 
swingeing,  tingeing,  to  distinguish  from  singing,  springing,  swinging,  and  tinging. 
Dyeing,  from  dye,  retains  e,  to  distinguish  it  from  dying,  the  present  participle  of 
die.  Mile  retains  c  in  mileage.  Derivatives  from  propernames  of  persons  retain  e ; 
as,  daguerreotype,  morseograph, 

RULE    II. 

Words  ending  in  silent  e  generallj-  retain  the  e  on  taking 
an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant;  as, 
bereave,  bereavement ;  issue,  issueless. 

Remark. — Aivful,  awfidly,  a-dufidness,  argument ,  argumentation ,  argumenta- 
tive, "djoful,  ivofully,  ivofulness,  duly,  truly,  and  wholly,  are  undisputed  exceptions  ; 
and  alridgment,  acknowledgmettt ,  Judgment ,  misjudgment,  prejudgment,  lodg- 
ment, "wobegone ,  and  rhymster ,  are  disputed  exceptions.  Some  write  abridgement , 
ackno7vledgement,  judgement ,  misjudgement,  prejudgement,  lodgement,  woebe- 
gone, and  rhyviester. 

RULE    III. 

Words  ending  in  ie  change  them  into  y  before  i>ig :  as,  lie, 
lying.     The  following  words  conform  to  this  rule : — 


lie 

lie                                     di 

untie 

belie 

overlie                            hie 

vie 

outlie 

underlie                          tie 
RULE   IV. 

outvie 

Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  generally 
change  y  into  i  on  taking  an  additional  syllable ;  as,  mercy, 
inei'ciful,  merciless ;  defy,  defied,  defies,  defieth,  defiant;  busy, 
busier,  busiest,  business;  \>\y,  pliers;  por^^hyry, porphyritic. 

Exception  I. —  Y  after  a  consonant  is  not  changed  into  i  before  ing  or  ish  ;  as, 
dry,  drying,  dryish. 

Exception  II. — Compounds  usually  retain  y;  as,  mercy-seat,  county-town, 
dairy-maid,  skylight. 

Remark. — Dryer,  dryest,  dryly,  dryness,  shyer ^  shyest,  shyly,  shyness,  are  un- 
disputed exceptions  to  the  rule  ;  and  slyer,  slyest,  slyly,  slyness,  are  disputed  ex- 
ceptions. 


Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  retain  the  y ;  as, 
gay,  gayly,  gayness,  gayety ;  pray,  prayer,  praying,  prayed, 
prays. 

Remark. — From  day,  lay,  pay,  say,  stay,  are  formed  daily,  laid,  paid,  said, 
saith,  staid.      The  regular  words  dayly,  layed,  payed,  sayeth,  and  stayed,  are 

sometimes  used. 

28® 


OR  THO  GRA  PHICA  L . 


Monosyllables  and  words  having  the  primary  accent  on  the 
last  syllable,  when  they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel,  double  their  final  consonant  before  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  that  begins  with  a  vowel;  as,  wet,  wetter, 
wettest,  wetting,  zuetted;  drum,  drumming,  drummed ;  dispel, 
dispelling,  dispelled. 

Exception. — A  final  x,  or  the  j  in  gas,  should  not  be  doubled ;  as,  fix,  fixes, 
fixed,  fixing :  annex,  annexing ;  gases,  gase/y. 

Remark  I. — 6'' after  q  is  never  reckoned  a  part  of  a  diphthong  or  triphthong; 
so  that  from  quit  are  formed  quitting,  quitted :  and  from  quag,  quaggy. 

Remark  II. — This  rule  applies  only  to  derivatives  which  retain  the  accent  of  iheit 
primitives,  and  not  to  such  as  in'/erable,  infierence,  preferable,  preference, 
ref  erable ,  and  reference,  from  infer,  prefer,  and  refer.  To  the  forms  infer'rible, 
refier'rible,  which  are  sometunes  met  with,  the  general  rule  applies.  Transfier'able, 
from  transfer,  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule;  the  regular  form  tratis/er'rible 
is  not  often  used.  Although  paraliel'ogram,  from  par'allel,  and  iiiodal'ity  from 
mo'dal,  remove  the  primary  accent  to  the  point  of  duplication,  they  do  not  double  the 
final  /.     See  Remark.  II.  under  Rule  VII. 


RULE   VII. 

A  final  consonant  is  not  doubled  when  it  is  preceded  by  a 
diphthong,  when  the  primary  accent  is  either  not  on,  or  not 
retained  upon,  the  last  syllable,  or  when  the  additional  syl- 
lable begins  with  a  consonant ;  as,  beat,  beating,  beaten  ;  differ, 
differing,  differed,  difference,  differe^it;  prefer',  prefer- 
ence;  xitiitx' ,referetice ;  'i\\,  fitful,  fitly,  fitness ;  bcn'efit,ben'- 
efited,  ben' efiting. 

Exception  I. — Compounds  that  remove  the  primary  accent  from  the  point  of 
duplication  retain  the  double  letter;  as,  broad' -brimmed,  heeV-tafiping. 

Remark  I. — When  ly  is  affixed  to  words  ending  in  /,  the  1  is  not  considered 
doubled  ;  as  in  cool-ly,  real-ly,  gravel-ly,  royal-ly. 

Remark  II. — Nutmegged,  kidnapping,  kidnapped,  kidnapper ,  zigzagging,  zig- 
zagged, excellence,  and  some  others,  are  undisputed  exceptions  to  the  rule.  There 
are  nearly  one  hundred  words,  from  which  more  than  four  hundred  derivatives  are 
formed,  that  are  usually  made  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Webster  is  distinguished  for 
making  nearly  all  the  derivatives  conform  to  the  rule.  Webster  and  Smart  accent 
the  verb  curvet,  on  the  first  syllable,  with  which  accentuation  cu>-7'eting  and 
curveted  are  correct  spellings  ;  other  orthoepists  accent  upon  the  last  syllable,  then 
curvet'ting  and  curvet' ted  are  correct. 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 


329 


RULE   VIII. 


Words  ending  in  c  accept  of  k  before  a  termination  begin- 
ning with  e,  i,  or  y ;  as,  frolic,  frolicked,  frolicking ;  colic, 
colicky. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

colic 

mimic 

rollic 

talc 

colicky 

mimicking 

rollicking 

talcky 

frolic 

frolicking 

frolicked 

mimicked 
mimicker 

rollicked 

zinc 

physic 

traffic 
trafficking 

zinckiferous 
(zinciferous) 

havoc 

physicking 

trafficked 

zincky 

havocking 

physicked 

trafficker 

havocked 

RULE  IX. 

Words  ending  in  a  double  letter  preserv^e  it  double  after 
a  prefix  or  before  a  termination  beginning  with  a  different 
letter;  as,  op-press,  mis-spell,  in-thrall,  oversee ;  see-ing,  op- 
pressive, stiff-ness,  woo-ed,  still-ness,  assess-ment. 

Remark  I. — Annul,  until,  tiuibil,  and  the  conservative  _/}<^/,  or  the  Websterian 
fiiljill,  are  the  only  exceptions  to  the  first  part  of  this  rule  extensively  recognized 
by  present  usage.  The  conservative  distil  and  instil  are  at  variance ;  but  the  W'eb- 
sterian  distill  and  instill,  and  also  tivibill,  as  written  by  Reid,  are  in  harmony 
with  the  rule. 

Reniark  II. — Pontific,  and  all  other  derivatives  of  pontiff,  are  exceptions  to  the 
latter  part  of  this  rule,  unless  an_/"  is  discarded  in  the  primitive  word,  as  Webster 
suggests  and  the  derivation  warrants.  The  derivatives  of  dull,  full,  skill,  and  will, 
are  disputed  exceptions  :  if  spelled  as  Webster  writes  them,  dullness,  fullness, 
skillful,  willful,  they  conform  to  the  rule. 


RULE   X. 

The  plural  is  usually  formed  from  the  singular  by  adding  s ; 
as,  brave,  braves ;  night,  7iights ;  hymn,  hymns. 


Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel  accept  of  s  in  the 
plural;  as,  cameo,  cameos ;  studio,  studios. 


53° 


OR  THOGKAPHICAL. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

agios 

ciirculios 

koodoos 

punctilios 

bagnios 

embryos 

nuncios 

ratios 

bamboos 

folios 

olios 

seraglios 

braggadocios 

imbroglios 

oratorios 

solfeggios 

cameos 

intaglios 

pistachios 

studios 

cuckoos 

internuncios 

port-folios 

trios 

RULE 

XII. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  hy  a  vowel  accept  of  jf  in  tiie 
plural;  as, money, ;;/<9«o'-S'/  <iX\.oxxi^y,  attorneys;  \-d\\^\,  valleys. 


RULE   XIII. 


Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  usually  accept 
of  es  in  the  plural;  as,  echo,  echoes ;  embargo,  embargoes. 

Remark. — There  are  more  than  fifty  words  that  conform  to  this  rule,  and  about 
thirty  that  accept  of  j  only. 


1 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

archipelagoes 

frescoes 

negroes 

rotundoes 

armadilloes 

grottoes 

palmettoes 

stilettoes 

bilboes 

gustoes 

passadoes 

supercargoes 

bravadoes 

heroes 

peccadilloes 

testudoes 

bravoes 

innuendoes 

potatoes 

tomatoes 

buffaloes 

juntoes 

prunelloes 

tornadoes 

buffoes 

lazarettoes 

punchinelloes 

torpedoes 

calicoes 

lingoes 

punctoes 

umboes 

cargoes 

lumbagoes 

ranchoes 

vetoes 

desperadoes 

mangoes 

recitativoes 

violoncelloes 

echoes 

manifestoes 

relievoes 

viragoes 

embargoes 

mottoes 

renegadoes 

volcanoes 

farragoes 

mulattoes 

ritornelloes 

KXCEPTIONS. 

zeroes 

albinos 

inamoratos 

octavos 

rondos 

cantos 

lassos 

pianos 

salvos 

centos 

limbos 

porticos 

set-tos 

dominos 

major-domos 

provisos 

siroccos 

duodecimos 

mementos 

quartos 

solos 

halos 

merinos 

rancheros 

torsos 

hidalgos 

mosqultos 

ridottos 

tyros 

It  would  be  well  if  all  words  ending  in  o  were  made  to  conform  to  Rules  XI. 
and  XIII. 


OR  THOGRAPHICAL. 


Zl^ 


RULE   XIV. 


Nouns  ending  in  ss,  z,  x,  ch  soft,  and  sh,  accept  of  es  in  the 
plural;  as,  &c&s?>,  dresses ;  buzz,  buzzes;  \ioy.,  boxes;  peach, 
peaches ;  dish,  dishes. 


RULE   XV. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant  change  y  into  ies  in  the 
plural;  as,  city,  cities;  daisy,  daisies. 


RULE   XVL 

Compound  nouns  whose  parts  are  connected  by  a  hyphen 
accept  of  the  sigh  of  the  plural  after  that  part  which  essen- 
tially constitutes  the  noun;  as,  knight-errant,  knights-erratit ; 
son-in-law,  sons-in-/azu ;  man-of-war,  men-of-war ;  step-child, 
step-children;  ember-day,  ember-days;  man-singer,  men- 
singers. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


aides-de-camp 

beaus-ideal  or 

beaux-ideal 

cartes-blanche 

charges-d'afFaires 

chevaux-de-frise 

coups-de-main 


courts-martial 
cousins-german 
daughters-in-law 
fathers-in-law 
gendarmes  or 
gens  d'armes 
jets  d'eau 


knights -errant 

mesdames 

men-of-war 

messieurs 

mothers-in-law 

poets-laureate 

porte-monnaies 


prices-current 

sergeants-at-arms 

sisters-in-law 

sons-in-law 

step-children 

step-fathers 

valets-de-chambre 


Remark  /.—If  no  hyphen  is  used,  the  sign  of  the  plural  is  always  placed  at  the 
end  ;  as,  spoonful,  spootifuh. 

Remark  //.—The  sign  of  the  possessive  case  is  always  placed  at  the  end  of  com- 
pound nouns  ;  as,  son-in-laiv  s  house. 


RULE  xvn. 

The  compounds  of  man  form  their  plural  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  simple  word;  as,  fisherman, /.y//^rw<?'«/  man-of- 
war,  men-of-war. 

Exceptions.— The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  dragoman,  Mussulman,  Otto- 
man, talisman,  Turco7nan,Ger7nan,  Norman,  and  landamman,  which  accept  of  s. 


332 


OR  THOGRAPHICAL. 


RULE    XVIII. 


Of  tlie  terminations  eive  and  ieve,  and  of  the  derivatives  of 
each,  the  former  are  found  after  c,  and  the  latter  after  other 
letters;  as,  conceive,  conceit,  receive,  receipt;  relieve,  relief, 
relieving,  thieve,  thievish. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

achieve 

deceitful 

misbelief 

reprieve 

aggrieve 

deceive 

misconceive 

retrieve 

bas-relief 

disbelief 

perceive 

sieve 

belief 

disbelieve 

preconceive 

thief 

believe 

grief 

receipt 

thieve  ' 

conceit 

grieve 

receive 

unbelief 

conceivable 

inconceiva 

ble 

relief 

unbeliever 

conceive 

lief 

relieve 

undeceive 

deceit 

lieve 

relievo 

Plurals  of  Nouns  which  change  f  or  fe  into  ves. 


beeves 

knives 

selves 

tipstaves 

calves 

leaves 

sheaves 

wharves 

elves 

lives 

shelves 

wives 

halves 

loaves 

thieves 

wolves 

All  other  nouns  ending  in  ff  conform   to  Rule   X.     Wharfs  prevails   in  Great 
Britain,  wharves  in  America. 


Plurals  of  Nouns  ending  in  f  or  fe  zuhich  accept  of  s  only  in 
the  Plural. 


briefs 

caliphs 

surfs 

roofs 

chiefs 

caufs 

fifes 

proofs 

fiefs 

clefs 

strifes 

reproofs 

griefs 

coifs 

safes 

disproofs 

mischiefs 

delfs 

scarfs 

waterproofs 

kerchiefs 

dwarfs 

waifs 

beliefs 

neckerchiefs 

turfs 

woofs 

reliefs 

handkerchiefs 

kerfs 

hoofs 

gulfs 

Plurals 

of  Nouns  endi. 

ng  in  EAU,  lEU, 

and  ou. 

beaux 

flambeaux 

portmanteaus 

bijoux 

bureaux 

plateaux 

purlieus 

morceaux 

chapeaux 

rondeaux 

adieux 

rouleaux 

chateaux 

jets  d'eau 

batteaux 

tableaux 

A  number  of  these  nouns  admits  of  two  forms  in  the  plural. 


HOW  TO  SECURE  COPYRIGHTS. 


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copyright  is  desired,  must  be  sent  by  mail  or  otherwise,  pre- 
paid, addressed : 

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This  must  be  done  before  publication  of  the  book  or  other 
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Tho.  printed  title  required  may  be  a  copy  of  the  title  page  of 
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claimant  of  copyright.  The  style  of  type  is  immaterial,  and 
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deposit  of  copies  above  required  the  copyright  is  void,  and  a 
penalty  of  I25  is  incurred.  No  copy  is  required  to  be  de- 
posited elsewhere. 

333 


334  HOJV  TO  SECURE  COPYRIGHTS. 


4.  No  copyright  is  valid  unless  notice  is  given  by  inserting 
in  every  copy  published,  on  the  title-page  or  the  page  follow- 
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person  entering  the  copyright,  the  words:  ''Copyright,  iS — , 
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The  law  imposes  a  penalty  of  fioo  upon  any  person  who 
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tered according  to  act  of  Congress,''  or  "Copyright,"  etc.,  or 
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Since  the  phrase,  all  rights  reserved,  refers  exclusively  to 
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A  copyright  may  be  secured  for  a  projected  work  as  well  as 
for  a  completed  one. 


HOW  TO  SECURE  COPYRIGHTS.  335 

S.  A  copyright  is  assignable  in  law  by  any  instrument  of 
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fifty  cents  each. 

10.  In  the  case  of  books  published  in  more  than  one  volume, 
or  of  periodicals  published  in  numbers,  or  of  engravings,  pho- 
tographs, or  other  articles  published  with  variations,  a  copy- 
right is  to  be  entered  for  each  volume  or  part  of  a  book,  or 
number  of  a  periodical,  or  variety,  as  to  style,  title,  or  inscrip- 
tion, of  any  other  article.  But  a  book  published  serially'  in  a 
periodical,  under  the  same  general  title,  requires  only  one 
entry.  To  complete  the  copyright  on  such  a  work,  two  copies 
of  each  serial  part,  as  well  as  of  the  complete  work  (if  pub- 
lished separately),  must  be  deposited. 

11.  To  secure  a  copyright  for  a  painting,  statue,  or  model 
or  design  intended  to  be  perfected  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts, 
so  as  to  prevent  infringement  by  copying,  engraving,  or  vend- 
ing such  design,  a  definite  description  must  accompany  the 
application  for  copyright,  and  a  photograph  of  the  same,  at 
least  as  large  as  "cabinet  size,"  should  be  mailed  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress  within  ten  days  from  the  completion  of 
the  work  or  design. 

12.  Copyrights  cannot  be  granted  upon  trade-marks,  nor 
upon  mere  names  of  companies  or  articles,  nor  upon  prints  or 
labels  intended  to  be  used  with  any  article  of  manufacture. 
If  protection  for  such  names  or  labels  is  desired,  application 
must  be  made  to  the  Patent  Office,  where  they  are  registered, 
at  a  fee  of  |;6  for  labels  and  I25  for  trade-marks. 

13.  Citizens  or  residents  of  the  U'nited  States  only  are 
entitled  to  copyright. 

14.  Every  applicant  for  a  copyright  should  state  distinctly 
the  full  name  and  residence  of  the  claimant,  and  whether  the 
right  is  claimed  as  author,  designer,  or  proprietor.  No  affi- 
davit or  formal  application  is  required. 

Office  of  the  Libr.\ri.\n  of  Congress, 

Washington,  1SS5. 

29 


THE   METRIC   SYSTEM. 


THE  Metric  System  is  a  decimal  system  of  measures  and 
weights,  based  on  the  meter  as  its  unit,  which  originated 
in  France  during  the  last  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  has  since  been  adopted  by  the  greater  number  of  States 
in  Europe  and  America.  In  the  United  States  its  use  was 
authorized  in  1866  by  Act  of  Congress.  The  length  of  the 
meter  was  intended  to  be  one  ten-millionth  part  of  the  distance 
from  the  equator  to  either  pole,  measured  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  but  it  is  in  reality  a  trifle  less.  All  other  units  for  measur- 
ing and  weighing  are  derived  from  it,  and  the  higher  or  lower 
denominations  of  the  same  kind  of  measure  are  obtained  by 
multiplying  or  dividing  its  unit  by  tens,  and  prefixing  to  its 
name  the  Greek  numerals,  deka  10,  hekto  100,  kilo  1000,  or 
tnyria  loooo,  for  the  higher  denominations,  and  the  Latin 
numerals,  deci  yV,  centi  jJ-q,  or  viilli  x^jW.  ^or  the  lower.  The 
unit  of  weight,  called  the  grain,  is  theoretically  the  weight  in 
vacuo  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  distilled  water  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  maximum  density  assumed  to  be  4°  C.  or  39°  i  Fe. 

Including  the  meter  and  gram,  five  units  have  been  adopted 
in  the  metric  system,  viz. : — 

1.  The  Meter,  the  unit  of  length,  =  3.280899  feet  =  39.37079  inches. 

2.  The  Are,  the  unit  of  surface,  =  i  square  dekameter  =  119.60332  square  yards. 

3.  The  Liter,  the  unit  of  capacity,  =  i  cubic  decimeter  =  0.26418635  gallon  = 
1.0567454  quarts. 

4.  The  Stere,  the  unit  of  solidity,  =  1  cubic  meter  =  35.336636  cubic  feet  = 
1.308764  cubic  yards. 

5.  The  Gram,  the  imit  of  weight,  =  15.43234874  grains  troy. 

For  practical  purposes  the  following  are  commonly  used  as 
units,  viz.: — 

For  itinerary  measure,  the  kilometer  =  0.62138  mile.  For  land  measure,  the 
hektare  =  2.47114  acres.  For  commercial  weight,  the  kilogram  =  2.20462123 
pounds.     The  nickel  five-cent  piece,  coined  since  1866,  weighs  exactly  5  grams. 

336 


THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


337 


Metric  Equivalents  of  English  Measures  and  Weights. 


I  inch  =  2 
I  foot  =  3 
I  yard  =  9 
I  rod  =  5 
I  mile  =  I 


LONG   MEASURE. 
540  centimeters. 
048  decimeters. 
144  decimeters. 
0291  meters. 
6093  kilometers. 


SQUARE    MEASURE. 
I  acre  =  40.467  ares. 

LIQUID    MEASURE. 
I  gill        =  1.1831  deciliters. 
I  pint      =  4.7325  deciliters. 
I  quart   =  9.4650  deciliters. 
I  gallon  =  3.786  liters. 


DRY   MEASURE. 


I  pint       =  5.5067  deciliters. 
I  quart    =  1.1013  liters. 
I  peck     =  8.8108  liters. 
I  bushel  =  3.524  dekaliters. 


AVOIRDUPOIS   WEIGHT. 

I  ounce  =  2.835  dekagrams. 
I  pound  ^  4-5359  hektograms. 

TROY   WEIGHT. 
I  grain    =  6.480  centigrams. 
I  ounce  =  3.1103  dekagrams. 
I  pound  =  3.7324  hektograms. 


Table  for  Reducing  Pounds  and  Ounces  to  Kilograms. 


Oz. 

Kilo. 

Lbs. 

Kilo. 

Lbs. 

Kilo, 

Lbs. 

Kilo. 

Lbs. 

.Kilo. 

1 

0.028 

1 

0.454 

31 

14.062 

61 

27.669 

91 

41.277 

2 

0.057 

2 

0.907 

32 

14-515 

62 

28.123 

92 

41-731 

3 

0.085 

3 

1. 361 

33 

14.969 

63 

28.577 

93 

42.184 

4 

0.113 

4 

1. 814 

34 

15.422 

64 

29.030 

94 

42.638 

5 

0.142 

5 

2.268 

35 

15-876 

65 

29.484 

95 

43.092 

6 

0.170 

6 

2.722 

36 

16.330 

66 

29.937 

96 

43-545 

7 

0.198 

7 

3-175 

37 

16.783 

67 

30-391 

97 

43-999 

8 

0.227 

8 

3.629 

38 

17.237 

68 

30.845 

98 

44.452 

9 

0.255 

9 

4.082 

^9 

17.690 

69 

31-298 

99 

44.906 

10 

0.283 

10 

4-536 

40 

18.144 

70 

31-752 

100 

45.360 

11 

0.312 

11 

4.990 

41 

18-597 

71 

32.205 

200 

90.720 

12 

0.340 

12 

S-443 

42 

19.051 

72 

32.659 

300 

136.079 

13 

0.369 

13 

5-897 

43 

19-505 

73    33.113 

400 

181.439 

U 

0.397 

14 

6-350 

44 

19-958 

74 !  33-566 

500 

226.799 

15 

0.425 

15 

6.804 

45 

20.412 

75    34.020 

600 

272.159 

16 

7.258 

46 

20.865 

~6  j  34-473 

700 

317.518 

17 

7.711 

47 

21.319 

77  '  34-927 

80C 

362.878 

18 

8.165 

48 

21-773 

78  i  35-380 

900 

408.238 

19 

8.618 

49 

22.226  1 

79  i  35-834 

1000 

453-598 

20 

9.072 

50 

22.680 

80  ■  36.288 

2000 

907.195 

21 

9.526 

51 

23-133 

81  1  36-741 

3000 

1360.793 

22 

9-979 

52 

23-587 

S2    37.195 

4000 

1814.390 

23 

10.433 

53 

24.041 

83    37.649 

5000 

2267.988 

24 

10.886 

54 

24.494 

84    38.102 

6000 

2721.586 

25 

11.340 

55 

24.948 

85  i  38.556 

7000 

3175-183 

26 

11-793 

56 

25.401  ; 

86  i  39.009 

8000 

3628.781  1 

27 

12.247 

57 

25-855  I 

87    39.463 

9000 

4082.378 

28 

12.701 

58 

26.309 

88  1  39-917 

10000 

4535-976 

29 

13-154 

59 

26.762 

89    40.370 

30 

13.608 

60  j  27.216 

90  i  40.824 

TECHNICAL   TERMS   OF   THE   CRAFT. 


Alley. — The  space  between  two  stands. 

Ascending  letters. — Letters  that  ascend 
into  the  upper  shoulder ;  as,  b,  d,  1,  &c. 
and  all  the  capitals. 

Author's  proof. — The  clean  proof  sent 
to  an  author  after  the  compositors' 
errors  have  been  corrected. 

Bank. — A  table  about  four  feet  high,  to 
lay  sheets  on  at  press. 

Bastard  title. — A  short  title  preceding 
the  general  title  of  a  work. 

Bastard  tyfie. — Type  with  a  face  larger 
or  smaller  than  its  regular  body :  as 
Nonpareil  on  Minion  body,  or  Minion 
on  Nonpareil  body. 

Batter. — Types  accidentally  injured  in 
a  form. 

Beard  of  a  letter, — The  outer  angles 
supporting  the  face  of  a  type  and  ex- 
tending to  the  shoulder. 

Bearer. — A  strip  of  reglet  to  bear  off 
the  impression  from  a  blank  page.  A 
long  piece  of  furniture,  type-high,  used 
in  working  jobs.  A  solid-faced  type 
interspersed  among  the  blank  parts  of 
a  page  composed  for  stereotyping,  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  knife  when 
the  plate  is  shaved. 

Bearer-lines. — The  top  line  and  bottom 
line  in  a  page  prepared  for  stereo- 
typing. 

Bed. — The  flat  part  of  the  press  on 
which  the  form  is  laid. 

Bevels. — Slugs    cast    nearly    type-high, 
with  a  beveled   edge,  used  by  stereo- 
typers  to  form  the  flange  on  the  side  of 
the  plates. 
338 


Bite. — An  irregular  white  spot  on  the 
edge  or  corner  of  a  printed  page,  caused 
by  the  frisket  not  being  sufficiently  cut 
out. 

Blanket. — A  woollen  cloth  used  in  the 
tympan. 

Blank-line. — A  line  of  quadrates. 

Blocks. — The  mahogany  forms  on  which 
stereotype  plates  are  placed  for  print- 
ing. 

Blccked  up. — When  the  fount  of  type  is 
all  set,  and  none  is  available  for  present 
use. 

Bodkin. — A  delicate  awl-like  tool  used 
for  correcting  errors  in  type. 

Body. — The  shank  of  the  letter. 

Botch. — A  bungling,  incompetent  work- 
man. 

Bottled. — Type  wider  at  the  bottom  than 
at  the  top. 

Boxes. — The  compartments  of  a  case  in 
which  the  types  are  placed. 

Braycr. — A  wooden  or  glass  rubber,  flat 
at  the  bottom,  used  to  bray  or  spread 
out  ink  on  the  ink-block. 

Break-line. — A  short  line. 

Broadside. — A  form  of  one  page,  print- 
ed on  one  side  of  a  whole  sheet  of 
paper. 

Broken  matter. — Pages  of  type  disrupt- 
ed and  somewhat  intermingled. 

Bundle. — Two  reams  of  paper. 

Bur. — Rough  edge  of  a  type  which  the 
founder  neglected  to  take  off  in  dress- 
ing. 

Cabinet. — A  receptacle  for  cases,  chases, 
leads,  &c. 


TECHNICAL   TERMS. 


339 


Cancelled  figures. — Figures  cast  with  a 
line  across  the  face. 

Caret. — A  character  [  A  ]  vised  in  proof- 
reading to  denote  the  place  where 
omitted  words  should  be  inserted. 

Case. — The  receptacle  for  type,  divided 
into  numerous  compartments. 

Cassie  paper. — Formerly,  the  two  out- 
side quires  of  a  ream,  consisting  of  de- 
fective sheets. 

Casting  off. — Estimating  how  many 
pages  a  certain  quantity  of  copy  will 
make  in  type. 

Cattle. — Imperfect  or  smutty  look  of  a 
printed  sheet  caused  by  an  oily  or  un- 
clean roller. 

Cer!phs.—T\\e  lines  or  cross-strokes  at 
the  ends  of  the  stem  of  a  letter. 

Chapel .^ A  printing-office. 

Chapel  lazvs.—'Rv\ts  of  a  printing-office. 

Chase. — A  rectangular  iron  frame  in 
which  pages  of  type  are  imposed. 

Circular  quadrates. — Blank  types  curv- 
ed on  one  side. 

Clean  proof. — A  proof  containing  few 
faults. 

Clearing  away. — Properly  disposing  of 
materials  after  a  work  has  been  com- 
pleted. 

Clicker. — The  chief  of  a  companion- 
ship. 

Close  jnatter. —SoWd  matter  with  few 
break-lines. 

Coinpanionship . — All  the  hands  em- 
ployed on  a  work. 

Composing. — Setting  tj^ie. 

Composing-rule . — A  steel  or  brass  rule, 
with  a  beak  at  one  end,  used  in  type- 
setting. 

Co»!posing-stick. — An  instrument  in 
which  types  are  arranged  in  words  and 
lines. 

Corner  quadrates . — A  quarter  section 
of  a  hollow  square  or  rectangle. 

Correct. — A  compositor  is  said  to  correct 
when  he  amends  the  faults  marked  in 
a  proof. 

Corrections.—'X\y<t  alterations  or  errors 
marked  in  a  proof 

Cut-in  letter. — A  tj'pe  of  large  size  ad- 
justed at  the  beginning  of  the  first  para- 
graph of  a  chapter. 

Cut-in  note. — A  note  justified  into  the 
side  of  a  page. 


Dead  horse. — Matter  charged  and  paid 

for  before  it  is  set. 
Dele,  3. — A  proof-reader's  mark,  signi- 
fying to  take  out. 

Descending  letters. — Letters  that  go 
down  into  the  lower  shoulder  of  the 
body  ;  as,  g,  j,  p,  q,  y. 

Devil. — The  errand-boy  of  a  printing- 
office. 

Dished. — A  defect  in  electrotyped  plates, 
the  centre  of  a  letter  being  lower  than 
its  edges. 

Distributing. — Returning  types  to  their 
various  boxes  after  having  been  printed 
from.  Spreading  ink  evenly  over  the 
surface  of  a  roller. 

Double. — Among  compositors,  repeti- 
tion of  words ;  among  pressmen,  a 
sheet  that  is  twice  pulled  and  mackled. 

Dressing  a  chase  or  form. — Fitting  the 
pages  and  chase  with  furniture  and 
quoins. 

Drive  out. — To  space  widely. 

Duck' s-bill . — A  tongue  cut  in  a  piece  of 
stout  paper  and  pasted  on  the  tympan 
at  the  bottom  of  the  tympan-sheet,  to 
support  the  paper  when  laid  on  the 
tympan. 

Duodecimo,  or  i2mo. — Twelve  pages  to 
a  form. 

Em. — The  square  of  the  body  of  a 
type. 

En. — Half  the  dimensions  of  the  prece- 
ding. 

Even  page. — The  2d,  4th,  6th,  or  any 
even-numbered  page  of  a  book. 

Fat. — Poetry  and  leaded  matter. 

Fat  face,  or  Fat  letter. — Broad  stemmed 
letter. 

Father  of  the  chapel. — President  or 
chairman  of  a  composing-room  or 
press-room  chosen  by  the  hands. 

Feed  guide . — An  implement  attached  to 
a  press  to  aid  in  correct  feeding. 

Feeding. — Supplying  the  press  with 
sheets. 

First  form. — The  form  first  printed, 
which  generally  contains  the  first  page 
of  a  sheet. 

Fly. — The  person  or  apparatus  that  takes 
off  the  sheets  from  the  press. 

Folio. — Two  pages  to  a  form. 

Foot-sticks. — Sloping  pieces  of  furniture 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  pages,  between 


29* 


340 


TECHNICAL   TERMS. 


which  and  the  chase  the  quoins  are 
driven  to  fasten  the  pages. 

Form. — The  pages  when  imposed  in  a 
chase. 

Foul  proof . — A  proof  with  many  faults 
marked  in  it. 

Fount. — A  complete  assortment  of  tj'pe, 
of  the  same  nick,  body,  and  face,  put 
up  by  type-founders  in  accordance  with 
an  ascertained  ratio. 

Fountain. — Reservoir  for  ink,  attached 
to  printing-presses. 

Friar. — A  light  patch  in  a  printed  sheet, 
caused  by  defective  rolling. 

Frisket. — An  iron  frame  fastened  by  a 
hinge  to  the  upper  part  of  the  tympan, 
to  hold  the  sheet  of  paper  fast  as  it 
goes  in  and  comes  from  the  press. 

Fudge. — To  contrive  without  proper  ma- 
terials. 

Full  press. — When  two  men  work  at  the 
press  with  hand  rollers. 

Furniture. — Strips  of  wood  or  metal 
placed  around  and  between  pages  to 
make  the  proper  margin. 

Galley. — A  wooden  or  brass  flat  oblong 
tray,  with  side  and  head  ledges,  for 
holding  type  when  composed. 

Galley-slaves. — An  ancient  term  of  de- 
rision applied  by  pressmen  to  composi- 
tors. 

Gauge. — A  strip  of  reglet  with  a  notch  in 
it,  passed  with  the  make-up,  to  denote 
the  length  of  the  pages. 

Gauge-pin. — An  instrument  to  aid  in 
feeding  job  presses  correctly. 

Get  in. — To  set  close. 

Good  colour . — Sheets  printed  neither  too 
black  nor  too  light. 

Guide. — A  strip  of  metal  frequently  used 
to  denote  the  last  line  of  copy  set. 

Gutter-sticks. — Furniture  used  in  impo- 
sition to  separate  the  pages. 

Half  press. — When  but  one  person 
works  at  the  press. 

Half-title. — The  title  of  a  book  inserted 
in  the  upper  portion  of  the  first  page 
of  matter. 

Hanging  indention. — Where  successive 
lines  are  .set-in  an  em  or  more  beyond 
the  first  line. 

Head-sticks. — Furniture  put  at  the  head 
of  pages  in  imposition,  to  make  mar- 
gin. 


Hell. — The  receptacle  for  broken  or  bat- 
tered letters;  the  old-metal  box;  the 
shoe. 

High-line. — Term  applied  to  a  type  that 
ranges  above  the  rest  in  a  line. 

High  (or  Io'm)  to  paper. — Applied  to  a 
type  cast  higher  or  lower  than  the  rest 
of  the  fount. 

Hollow  quadrates. — Metal  quadrates 
mortised  for  the  insertion  of  types,  &c. 

Horse. — The  stage  on  the  bank  on  which 
pressmen  set  the  heap  of  paper. 

Horsing. — Charging  for  work  before  it  is 
executed 

Imposing. — Arranging  and  locking  up  a 
form  of  type  in  a  chase. 

Imposing-stone. — The  stone  on  which 
compositors  impose  and  correct  forms. 

Imprint. — The  name  of  the  printer  or  of 
the  publisher  appended  to  jobs  or  title- 
pages. 

Inferior  letters. — Small  letters  cast  near 
the  bottom  of  the  line. 

Inset. — Same  as  offcut. 

yeff. — To  throw  for  the  first  choice  with 
em  quadrates  instead  of  dice. 

jfustifying. — Spacing  out  lines  accu- 
rately. 

Keep  in. — To  crowd  in  by  thin  spacing. 

Keep  out. — To  drive  out  or  expand  mat- 
ter by  wide  spacing. 

Kerned  letter. — Type  of  which  a  part 
of  the  face  hangs  over  the  body. 

Laying  cases . — Filling  cases  with  a  fount 
of  new  type. 

Laying  pages. — Placing  pages  of  type 
on  the  stone  in  a  proper  order  for  im- 
position. 

Leaders. — Dots  or  hyphens  placed  at  in- 
tervals of  one  or  more  cms  in  length, 
to  guide  the  eye  across  the  line  to  the 
folio  in  tables  of  contents,  &c. 

Leads. — Thin  strips  of  metal  cast  of 
various  thicknesses,  quadrate-high,  to 
separate  lines  of  type. 

Lean. — Close  and  solid  matter. 

Lean  face. — Light,  thin  type. 

Letter  hangs. — When  the  page  is  out  of 
square. 

Letter-press  printing. — Printing  from 
types. 

Ligatures. — Two  or  more  letters  cast 
on  the  same  shank,  as  ff,  fi,  fl,  ffi, 
ffl,  X,  oe. 


TECHNICAL   TERMS. 


341 


Linefor)ners. — Brass  rule  bent  in  vari- 
ous shapes  to  aid  in  making  curved 
lines  of  type. 
Locking  up. — Tightening  up  a  form  by 

means  of  quoins. 
Logotypes . — The  same  as  ligatures. 
Long  cross. — The  bar    that    divides  a 

chase  the  longest  way. 
Long  pull. — When  the   bar  is  brought 

close  to  the  cheek  of  a  press. 

Lo%u  case. — When   the  compositor  has 

set  almost  all  the  letters  out  of  his  case. 

Lower  case. — The  case  containing  the 

small  letters  of  the  alphabet,  figures, 

points,  &c. 

Low-line. — Applied  to  a  type  that  ranges 

lower  than  the  rest  in  a  line. 
Mackle. — When  part  of  the  impression 

appears  double. 
Make-up. — To  arrange  the  lines  of  mat- 
ter into  pages. 
Make-up  rule. — A  steel  rule  with  a  pro- 
jection  on    the   top,  for    making    up 
matter. 
Making  viargin. — In     imposition,     ar- 
ranging the  space  between   the  pages 
of  a  form  so  that  the  margin  will  be 
properly  proportioned. 
Making  ready. — Preparing  a  form  on  the 

press  for  printing. 
Mallet. — A  wooden  hammer. 
Matter. — Composed  type. 
Measure. — The  width  of  a  page. 
Monk. — A  black  spot  in  a  printed  sheet, 
owing  to  the  ink  not  being   properly 
distributed. 
Naked  for  tn. — A  form  without  furniture. 
Nicks. — Hollows  cast  in  the  front  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  shank  of  a  type,  to 
show  the  compositor  how  to  place  it  in 
his  stick. 
Octavo,  or  8vo. — Eight  pages  to  a  form. 
Octodecimo,  or  iSino. — Eighteen  pages 

to  a  form. 
Odd  page  or /olio. —'T\\e.  ist,  3d,  and  all 

uneven-numbered  pages. 
Off. — Signifies   that   the   pressman   has 

worked  off  the  form. 
Offcut. — A  portion  of  a  sheet  that  is  cut 

off  before  folding. 
Off  its  y"fW.— When   matter   does  not 

stand  upright. 
Open  matter. — Matter  widely  leaded  or 
containing  numerous  break-lines. 


Out. — An  omission  marked  in  a  proof 
by  the  reader. 

Out  of  register. — When  the  pages  do  not 
back  each  other. 

Overlay. — A  scrap  of  paper  pasted  on 
the  tympan-sheet  to  bring  up  the  im- 
pression. 

Overrunning. — Carrying  words  back- 
ward or  forward  in  correcting. 

Page-cord. — Twine  used  for  tying  up 
pages. 

Passing  the  make-up. — Passing  to  the 
next  hand  in  order  the  lines  remaining 
(if  any)  after  a  compositor  has  made 
up  his  matter,  together  with  the  gauge 
and  proper  folio. 

Peel. — A  broad,  thin  board  with  a  long 
handle. 

Perfecting. — Printing  the  second  form 
of  a  sheet. 

Perforating  rule. — Brass  or  steel  rule, 
somewhat  higher  than  type. 

Pi. — Type  promiscuously  intermingled. 

Pick. — A  particle  of  ink  or  paper  im- 
bedded in  the  hollow  of  a  letter,  filling 
up  its  face  and  occasioning  a  spot. 

Pigs. — An  ancient  nickname  given  in 
derision  by  compositors  to  pressmen. 
The  press-room  was  called  a  pigsty. 

Planer. — A  smooth  block  of  wood  used 
for  levelling  the  surface  of  pages  of  type 
when  imposed. 

Planing  down. — To  bring  down  types 
evenly  on  their  feet,  by  laying  a  planer 
on  the  page  and  striking  it  firmly  with 
a  mallet. 

Platen. — The  part  of  a  printing-press 
which,  acted  upon  by  the  lever,  gives 
the  impression  to  a  sheet. 

Point-holes. — Fine  holes  made  by  the 
points  to  register  the  second  impres- 
sion by 

Points. — Two  thin  pieces  of  steel  with  a 
point  at  one  end,  adjusted  to  the  tym- 
pan  with  screws,  to  make  register. 
Quadrate.— K  low  square  blank   type, 
used  to  indent  the  first  line  of  a  para- 
graph, and  to  fill  up  blank  spaces. 
Quarters. — Octavos     and    twelves    are 
said  to  be  imposed  in  quarters,  not  from 
their  equal  divisions,  but  because  they 
are   imposed  and   locked   up    in   four 
parts. 
Quarto,  or  4to. — Four  pages  to  a  form. 


342 


TECHNICAL   TERMS. 


Quire. — Twenty-four  sheets  of  paper. 
Quoins. — Small  wedges  for  locking  up  a 
form. 

Quotation  furnittcre. — Quotations  cast 
of  various  sizes  in  length  and  width, 
used  for  blanking  and  as  furniture. 

Quotatiotis. — Large  hollowed  quadrates. 

Riuk. — Receptacle  for  cases. 

Ratchet. — An  instrument  for  turning  the 
screws  of  stereotype  blocks. 

Ratting. — Working  at  less  than  the  esta- 
blished prices. 

Ream. — Twenty  quires  of  paper. 

Recto. — Right-hand  page. 

References. — Letters  or  characters  serv- 
ing to  direct  the  reader's  attention  to 
notes  at  the  foot  of  a  page. 

Register. — To  cause  the  pages  in  a  sheet 
to  print  precisely  back  to  back. 

Register  slieet. — The  sheet  used  to  make 
register. 

Reglet. — Thin  furniture,  of  an  equal 
thickness  all  its  length.  It  is  made  to 
match  the  depth  of  type. 

Reiteration. —  The  form  printed  on  the 
second  side. 

Revise. — The  last  proof  of  a  form  before 
working  it  off. 

Riding. — One  colour  falling  on  another. 
Type  at  the  end  of  a  line  catching 
against  a  lead. 

Rise. — .A.  form  is  said  to  rise  when,  in 
raising  it  from  the  correcting  stone,  no 
letters  drop  out. 

Roller. — A  wooaen  cylinder  covered  with 
composition,  which,  set  in  an  iron 
frame,  revolves  upon  a  rod,  and  is  used 
for  inking  type. 

Rounce. — The  handle  for  running  in  and 
out  the  carriage  of  a  hand-press. 

Round picli. — A  dot  in  a  letter  in  a  stereo- 
type plate  caused  by  an  air-bubble. 

Running  title. — The  title  of  the  book  or 
subject  placed  at  the  top  of  the  pages. 

Runs  on  sorts. — Requiring  an  inordinate 
proportion  of  particular  letters. 

Sa7v-block. — A  box  similar  to  a  carpen- 
ter's mitre-block,  to  guide  in  cutting 
furniture,  &c. 

Schedule. — A  sheet  of  paper  passed  with 
the  make-up,  containing  folios,  on 
which  the  compositor  marks  his  name 
opposite  to  the  pages  set  by  him. 

Set  off. — When   sheets   that   are   newly 


I  worked  off  soil  those  that  come  in  con- 
tact with  them,  they  are  said  to  set  off. 

Shank. — The  metal  body  upon  which  the 
face  of  a  letter  stands. 

Sheep's-foot. — An  iron  hammer  with  a 
claw-end. 

Sheet-wise . — When  the  pages  of  a  sheet 
are  imposed  in  two  forms,  which  are 
backed  in  printing. 

Shooting-stick. — A  wedge-shaped  instru- 
ment for  locking  up  a  form. 

Short  cross. — The  short  bar  which,  cross- 
ing the  long  bar,  divides  the  chase  into 
quarters. 

Shoulder. — The  surface  of  the  shank  of 
a  type  not  covered  by  the  letter. 

Side  sorts. — Types  in  the  side  and  upper 
boxes  of  a  case,  consisting  of  letters 
not  frequently  used. 

Side-sticks. — Sloping  furniture  on  the 
outside  of  the  pages  next  to  the  chase, 
where  the  quoins  are  inserted. 

Signature. — A  letter  or  a  figure  used  at 
the  bottom  of  the  first  page  of  a  sheet, 
to  direct  the  binder  in  placing  the 
sheets  in  a  volume. 

Slice  galley. — A  galley  with  an  upper 
movable  bottom,  called  a  slice,  used  for 
pages  and  jobs  too  large  to  be  lifted  by 
the  fingers. 

Slug. — A  thick  lead.  Sometimes  with  a 
word  or  figure  on  top,  used  to  denote 
the  ownership  of  matter  on  galleys. 

Slur. — A  blurred  impression  in  a  printed 
sheet. 

Solid  pick. — A  letter  in  a  stereotype  plate 
filled  up  with  metal,  resulting  from  an 
imperfect  mould. 

Sorts. — The  letters  in  the  several  case- 
boxes  are  separately  called  sorts,  in 
printers'  and  founders'  language. 

Space-rules .—Y\vic  lines,  cast  type-high, 
and  of  even  ems  in  length,  for  table  and 
algebraical  work. 

Spaces. — Low  blank  types  used  to  sepa- 
rate words. 

Squabble. — A  page  or  form  is  squabbled 
when  the  letters  are  twisted  out  of  a 
square  position. 

Stand. — The  frame  on  which  the  cases 
are  placed. 

Stem. — The  vertical  strokes  of  a  type. 

Stereotype  printing. — Printing  from  ste- 
reotyped plates. 


TECHNICAL   TERMS. 


343 


Stei. — Written  opposite  to  a  word  in  a 
proof,  to  signify  that  the  word  errone- 
ously struck  out  shall  remain. 

Sub. — A  compositor  occasionally  em- 
ployed on  a  daily  paper,  to  fill  the 
place  of  an  absentee. 

Superior  letters. — Letters  of  a  small  face, 
cast  by  the  founder  near  the  top  of  the 
line. 

Table-zuork. — Matter  consisting  partly 
of  rules  and  figures. 

Take,  or  Taking. — A  given  portion  of 
copy. 

Token. — ^Two  hundred  and  fifty  sheets. 

Turn  for  a  letter. — When  a  sort  runs 
short,  a  letter  of  the  same  thickness 
is  substituted,  placed  bottom  upward. 

Tynipan. — A  frame  covered  with  parch- 
ment or  muslin  and  attached  to  the 
press-bed  to  lay  the  sheet  on  before 
printing. 


Underlay. — A  piece  of  paper  or  card 
placed  under  types  or  cuts  to  improve 
the  impression. 

Uppercase. — The  case  containing  capital 
and  small  capital  letters,  fractions,  &c. 

Verso. — Left-hand  page. 

VVayz-goose. — A  term  given  in  England 
to  the  annual  dinner  customary  among 
printers  there  during  the  summer 
months. 

White  line. — A  line  of  quadrates. 

White  page. — A  blank  page. 

White  paper. — Until  the  second  side  of 
a  sheet  is  printed,  pressmen  call  the 
heap  white  paper. 

Work  and  turn. — When  a  sheet  is  print- 
ed half-sheetwise,  the  paper  must  be 
turned  and  worked  on  the  second  side. 

Working  in  pocket. — When  the  hands 
share  equally  their  earnings  on  a 
work. 


PROOF   PRESS. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A, — Acting. 

a. — are,  (of  the  French  metric  system.) 

A.  or  Ans. — Answer. 

A.  A.  G. — Assistant  Adjutant-General. 

A.  A.  P.  S. — American  Association  for  the 
Promotion  of  Science. 

A.  A.  S. — AcademicB  America7i(e  Sociiis, 
Fellow  of  the  American  Academy  (of 
Arts  and  Sciences). 

A.  A.  S.  S. — Ainericance  AntiijitariancE 
Socictatis  Socius,  Member  of  the  Ame- 
rican Antiquarian  Society. 

A.  B. — Artiuin  Baccalaiireus,  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M. — American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions. 

Abp. — Archbishop. 

Abr. — Abridgment. 

A.  C. — Ante  Christum,  before  the  birth 
of  Christ. 

A.  C. — Archchancellor. 

Acct. — Account. 

A.  C.  S. — American  Colonization  Society. 

A.  D. — Anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  the 
Lord. 

A.  D.  C. — Aide-de-camp. 

Adj. — Adjective. 

Adjt. — Adjutant. 

Adjt.-Gen. — Adjutant-General. 

Ad  lib. — Ad  libitutn,  at  pleasure. 

Adm. — Admiral ;  Admiralty. 

Adm.  Co. — .Admiralty  Court. 

Admr. — Administrator. 

Admx. — Administratrix. 

Ad  V. — Ad  valorem,  at  (or  on)  the  value. 

Adv.— Adverb. 

Xx. — j-Etatis,  of  age  ;  aged. 

344 


A.  F.  B.  S. — American  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society. 

A.  F.  &  A.  M.— Ancient  Free  and  Ac- 
cepted Masons. 

A.  G. — Adjutant-General. 

Ag. — Argentiitn,  silver. 

Agr. — Agriculture. 

A.  G.  S.  S. — American  Geographical  and 
Statistical  Society. 

Agt. — Agent. 

A.  W..—An}io  Hegim,  in  the  year  of  the 
Hegira. 

A.  H.  M.S. — American  Home  Missiona- 
ry Society. 

Ala. — Alabama. 

Aid. — Alderman. 

Alex. — Alexander. 

Alg. — Algebra. 

Alt. — Altitude. 

A.  M. — Anno  mundi,  in  the  year  of  the 
world. 

A.M. — Ante  meridiem,  before  noon; 
morning. 

A.'M.—Artiitm  Magister,  Master  of 
Arts. 

Amb. — Ambassador. 

Amer. — American. 

AMM. — Amalgama,  amalgamation. 

Amt. — Amount. 

An. — Anno,  in  the  year. 

h-n.  K.Q..— Anno  ante  Christum,  in  the 
year  before  Christ. 

Anat. — Anatomy. 

Anc. — Ancient ;  anciently. 

And. — Andrew. 

Ang.  -Sax. — Anglo-Saxon. 

Anon. — Anonymous. 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIOiVS. 


345 


Anth. — Anthony. 

Aor.  or  aor. — Aorist. 

A.  O.  S.  S. — Atncricatiiz  Orientalis  So- 
cietatis  Socius,  Member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Oriental  Society. 

Ap. — Apostle  ;  Appius. 

Ap. — Apud,  in  the  writings  of;  as  quoted 
by. 

A.  P.  G.  or  Ast.  P.  G.— Professor  of  As- 
tronomy in  Gresham  College. 

Apo — Apogee. 

Apoc. — Apocalypse. 

App. — Appendix. 

Apr. — April. 

A.  Q.  M.  G. — Assistant  Quartermaster- 
General. 

A.  R. — Anna  Regina,  Queen  Anne. 

A.  R. — Anno  regni,  year  of  the  reign. 

A.  R.  A.— Associate  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy. 

Arch. — Archibald. 

Arg. — Argurnento,  by  an  argument 
drawn  from  such  a  law. 

Arith. — Arithmetic. 

Ark. — Arkansas. 

A.  R.  R. — Anno  regni  regis,  in  the  year 
of  the  reign  of  the  king. 

A.  R.S.  S. — Antiquariorum  Regia  So- 
cietatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Antiquaries. 

Art. — Article. 

A.  S.  or  Assist.  Sec. — Assistant  Secretary. 

A.  S.A. — American  Statistical  Associa- 
tion. 

A.  S.  S.  U. — American  Sunday-School 
Union. 

Astrol. — Astrology. 

Astron. — Astronomy. 

A.  T. — Archtreasurer. 

A.  T.  S. — American  Tract  Society. 

Ats. — At  suit  of. 

Atty. — Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General . 

A.  U.  A. — American  Unitarian  Associa- 
tion. 

Aub.  Theol.  Sem. — Auburn  Theological 
Seminary. 

A.U. C. — Anno  urbis  conditio,  or,  ab 
urbe  cottdita,  in  the  year  from  the 
building  of  the  city  (Rome). 

Aug. — August. 

Aur. — Aurum,  gold. 

Auth.  Ver. — Authorized  Version,  (of  the 
Bible.) 


Av. — Average;  Avenue. 
Avoir. — Avoirdupois. 

A.  Y.  M. — Ancient  York  Masons, 
b. — born  ;   book. 

B.  A.— Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bal. — Balance. 

Bait. — Baltimore. 

Bar. — Baruch. 

Bart,  or  Bt. — Baronet. 

bbl.— Barrel. 

B.  C— Before  Christ. 

B.  C.  L. — Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.  D. — BaccalaiireusDivinitatis^as^t' 
lor  of  Divinity. 

Bds.  or  bds. — Boards  (bound  in). 

Benj. — Benjamin. 

Bk.— Book. 

B.  LL. — Baccalaureus  Legum,  Bachelor 
of  Laws. 

B.  M. — Baccalaureus  Medicina ,  Bache- 
lor of  Medicine. 

Bost. — Boston. 

Bot. — Botany. 

Bp. — Bishop. 

B.  R. — Banco  Regis  or  Regince,  the 
King's  or  Queen's  Bench. 

Br.— Brig. 

Brig. — Brigade  ;  Brigadier. 

Brig.-Gen . — Brigadi  er-General. 

Brit.  Mus.— British  Museum. 

Bro. — Brother. 

Br.  Univ.^Brown  University. 

B.  S. — Bachelor  in  the  Sciences. 

bu. — bushel. 

B.  V. — Beata  Virgo,  Blessed  Virgin. 

B.  V. — Bene  vale,  farewell. 
ca. — centiare,  (metric  system.) 
C.jCh.  or  chap. — Chapter. 

C.  or  cent. —  Centum,  a  hundred. 

Caet.  par. —  Cieteris paribus,  other  things 

being  equal. 
Cai. — California;  Calends. 
Can. — Canon. 
Cant. — Canticles. 

Cap.  or  c. —  Caput,  capitulum,  chapter. 
Caps. — Capitals. 
Capt. — Captain. 
Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General. 
Cash. — Cashier, 
Ca.  resp. — Capias  ad  respondendum,  a 

legal  writ. 
Ca.  sa. —  Capias    ad  satisfaciendum,  a 

legal  writ. 
Cath. — Catherine. 


346 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIOXS. 


C.  B. —  Cotmiiuiiis  Bcinciis,  Common 
Bench. 

C.  B. — Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.C. — Caius  College;  Account  Current. 

C.C.  C. — Corpus  Christ!  College. 

C.C.  P. — Court  of  Common  Pleas 

C.  E. — Canada  East. 

C.  E. — Civil  Engineer. 

Cel.  or  Celt. — Celtic. 

Cf.  or  cf — Confer,  compare. 

eg. — centigram,  (metric  system.) 

C.  G. — Commissary-General ;  Consul- 
Gene  ral. 

C.  H. — Court-House 

Ch. — Church;  Chapter;  Charles. 

Chanc. — Chancellor. 

Chap. — Chapter. 

Chas. — Charles. 

Chem. — Chemistry. 

Chr. — Christopher. 

Chron. — Chronicles. 

Cin. — Cincinnati. 

C.  J.— Chief-Justice. 

cl. — centiliter,  (metric  system.) 

Clk.— Clerk. 

cm. — centimeter,  (metric  system.) 

C.  M. — Common  Metre. 

C.  M.  G. — Companion  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Michael  ind  St.  George. 

Co. — Company  ;  County. 

C.  O.  D. — Cash  (or  collect)  on  delivery. 

Col. — Colorado  ;  Colonel ;  Colossians. 

Coll. — Collector;  Colloquial;  College; 
Collection. 

Com. — Commerce  ;  Committee  ;  Com- 
mentary; Commissioner;  Commodore. 

Com.  Arr. — Committoe  of  Arrangements. 

Comdg.— Commanding. 

Comm. — Commentary. 

Comp. — Compare  ;  Compound. 

Com.  Ver. — Common  Version  (of  the 
Bible.) 

Con. —  Contra,  against;  in  opposition. 

Con.  Cr. — Contra  credit. 

Conch. — Conchology. 

Cong. — Congress;   Congius,  a  gallon. 

Conj.  orconj. — Conjunction. 

Conn,  or  Ct.— Connecticut. 

Coast. — Constable;  Constitution. 

Cent. — Contra. 

Cor. — Corinthians. 

Corol. — Corollary. 

Cor.  Sec. — Corresponding  Secretary. 

C.P. — Common  Pleas. 


C.  P.— Court  of  Probate. 

C.  P.  S. —  Custos  Prhiati  Sigilli,  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal. 

C.  R. —  Custos  Rotidoruin ,  Keeper  of  the 
Rolls. 

Cr. — Creditor;  credit. 

Crim.  con. — Criminal  conversation ;  adul- 
tery. 

C.  S — Court  of  Sessions. 

C.  S. — Custos  Sigilli,  Keeper  of  the  Seal. 

Ct.,  cts. — Cent;  cents. 

C.  Theod. —  Codice  Tlieodosiano,  in  the 
Theodosian  Code. 

C.W.— Canada  West. 

Cwt. — Hundredweight. 

Cyc. — Cyclopedia. 

d. — Denarius    or    denarii,    penny    or 

pence, 
d.— died. 

D.^ — Five  hundred. 
Dan. — Daniel;  Danish. 

D.  B.  or  Domesd.  B. — Domesday-Book. 
D.  C. — Da  Capo,  again. 

D.  C. — District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C.  L. — Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.  D. — Divinitatis   Doctor,    Doctor  of 

Divinity. 
D.  D.  D.—Daf,  dicat,  dedicat,\\<t  gives, 

he  devotes,  he  dedicates. 
Dea. — Deacon. 

Dec. — December  ;  Declination. 
Deg. — Degree  or  degrees. 
Del. — Delaware;   Delegate. 
Del.  or  del. — Delineaz'it ,  he  drew  it 
Dem. — Democrat. 
Dep. — Deputy. 
Dept. — Department. 
Deut. — Deuteronomy. 
D. P.— Dean  of  the  Faculty. 
Dft.  or  deft. — Defendant. 
D.G. — Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  of  Gol 
D.G. — Deo gratias,  thanks  to  God. 
dg. — decigram,  (metric  system.) 
Dg. — Dekagram,  (metric  system.) 
D.  H.— Dead-head. 
Diam. — Diameter. 
Diet. — Dictator;   Dictionary. 
Dim. —  Diminutive. 
Disc. —  Discount. 
Diss. — Dissertation. 
Dist.— District. 

Dist.-Atty. — District-Attorney. 
dl. — deciliter,  (metric  system.) 
Dl. — Dekaliter,  (metric  system.) 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIONS. 


347 


dm. — decimetre,  (metric  system.) 

Dm. — Dekametre,  (metric  system.) 

D.  M. — Doctor  of  Music. 

Do. — Ditto,  the  same. 

Dols.— Dollars. 

Dom.  Ca. — Dominion  of  Canada. 

D.O.M. — Deo  Optimo  maxinio,  to  God, 

the  best,  the  greatest. 
Doz. — Dozen. 

D.  P. — Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
Dr.— Debtor;  Doctor. 

D.  S. — Dal  segno,  from  the  sign, 
ds. — Decistere,  (metric  system.) 
Ds. — Dekastere,  imetricsystem.) 

d.  s.  h.^Dcbit  sans  breve,  charge  without 
abatement. 

V>.'Y.— Doctor  Theologies ,  Doctor  of  Di- 
vinity. 

Y).'^ .—Deo  volentc,  God  willing. 

Dwt. — Pennyweight. 

E. — East. 

ea. — Each. 

E.  by  S. — East  by  South. 
Eben. — Ebenezer. 

Eccl. — Ecclesiastes. 
Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus. 
Ed. — Editor;  Edition. 
Edm. — Edmund. 
Edw. — Edward. 
E.  E. — Errors  excepted. 
e.g. — Exem/'li gratia,  for  example, 
e.g. — E.X grege,  amoi^g  the  rest. 
E.  I.— East  Indies  or  East  India. 
Eliz. — Elizabeth. 
E.  Ion. — East  longitude. 
Encyc. — Encyclopedia. 
E.  N.  E.— East-Northeast. 
Eng.— England;  English. 
Ent. — Entomology. 
Env.  Ext. — Envoy  Extraordinary. 
Ep  — Epistle. 

Eph.— Ephesians  ;  Ephraim. 
Esd.— Esdms. 
E.  S.  E.— East-Southeast. 
Esq. — Esquire. 
Esth. — Esther. 
et  al. — Et  alii,  and  others. 
et  seq. — Et  sequcniia.  and  what  follows. 
etc.  or  &c. — Et  ccptcri,  et  cceteree,  et  ce- 
tera, and  others  ;  and  so  forth. 
Ex. — Example. 
Ex. — Exodus. 

Exc. — Excellency;  exception. 
Exch. — Exchequer. 


Exec.  Com. — Executive  Committee. 
Execx. — Executrix. 
Exr.  or  Exec. — Executor. 
Ez. — Ezra. 
Ezek. — Ezekiel. 

E.  &  O.  E. — Errors  and  omissions  ex- 
cepted. 

Fahr. — Fahrenheit. 

F.  A.  M. — Free  and  Accepted  Masons. 
Far. — Farthing. 

F.  A.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety. 

fcap.  or  fcp. — Foolscap. 

F.  D. — Fidei  Defensor  or  Defcnsatrix, 
Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Fe. — Ferrtan,  iron. 

Feb. — February. 

Fee. — Fecit,  he  did  it. 

Fem. — Feminine. 

F.  E.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Entomological 
Society  ;  of  the  Ethnological  Society. 

Ff.— The  Pandects. 

F.  G.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society. 

F.H.S.— Fellow  of  the  Horticultural  So- 
ciety. 

Fi.  fa. — Fieri  facias,  cause  it  to  be  done. 

Fid.  Def.— Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Fig — Figure. 

Fin.  Sec. — Financial  Secretary. 

Fir. — Firkin. 

Fla.— Florida. 

F.  L.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Linneean  Society. 

f.  o.  b. — Free  on  board. 

Fol. — Folio. 

For. — Foreign. 

F.  P.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Philological  So- 
ciety. 

Fr. — Fraginentiiin,  fragment. 

Fr. — Franc  ;  Frau,  (lady.) 

Fr. — Francis. 

F.  R.  A.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society. 

F.  R.  C.  S.  L.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons,  London. 

Fred. — Frederick. 

F.  R.  G.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

Fri. — Friday. 

F.  R.S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Frs. — Frisian. 

F.  R.  S.  E.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  S.  L.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societj  , 
London. 


30 


348 


ABBRE  J  'lA  TIOXS. 


F.  R.  S.  L.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 

of  Literature. 
F.  S.  A.— Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 
F.  S.  A.  E.— Fellow  of  the  Society  of  An- 

tiquaries,  Edinburgh. 
Ft. — Foot ;  feet ;  Fort. 
Fur. — Furlong. 

F.  Z.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
g. — gram,  (metric  system.) 

G    or  g.- — Guineas. 

G.  A. — General  Assembly. 
Ga. — Georgia. 

Gal. — Galatians  ;  Gallon. 

G.  A.  R. — Grand  Army  of  the  Republic. 

G.  B. — Great  Britain. 

G.  C. — Grand  Chapter. 

G.  C.  B.— Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.  C.  H. — Grand  Cross  of  Hanover. 

G.  C.  L.  H. — Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour. 

G.  E. — Grand  Encampment. 

Gen. — Genesis ;  General ;  Genitive  case. 

Gent. — Gentleman. 

Geo. — George. 

Geog. — Geography. 

Geol. — Geology. 

Geom. — Geometrj'. 

Ger. — Germany  ;  German. 

G.  L. — Grand  Lodge. 

Gl. — Glossa,  a  gloss. 

G.  >L— Grand  Master. 

G.  O.— General  Order. 

Goth. — Gothic. 

Gov. — Governor. 

Gov.-Gen . — Governor-General . 

G.  R. — Georgius  Rex,  King  George. 

Or. — Greek  ;  grain ;  gramme ;  groschen. 

Gram. — Grammar. 

Gro. — Gross. 

Grot. — Grotius. 

Ha. — Hektare,  (metric  system.) 

h.  a. — Hoc  anno,  this  year. 

Hab.— Habakkuk. 

Hab.  Corp. — Habeas  corpus,  you  may 
have  the  body. 

Hab.  fa.  poss. — Habere  facias  possessio- 
nem, a  writ  to  put  the  plaintiff  in 
possession. 

Hab.  fa.  scis. — Habere  facias  seisinajn, 
a  writ  now  superseded  by  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Hag.— Haggai. 

Ham.  Coll. — Hamilton  College. 

H.  B.  C. — Hudson's  Bay  Company. 


H.  B.  AL — His  or  Her  Britannic  Majesty. 

H.  C — House  of  Commons. 

hdkf. — Handkerchief. 

h.  e. — Hoc  est,  that  is,  or  this  is. 

Hectol. — Hectolitre,  (metric  system.) 

Heb. — Hebrews. 

Her. — Heraldry. 

Hf-bd.— Half-bound. 

Hf-cf— Half-calf. 

Hg. — Hektogram,  (metric  system.) 

Hg. — Hydrargyrum,  mercury. 

hhd. — Hogshead. 

Hist.— History. 

H.  J.  S  — Hie  j'acet  sepultus,  Here  lies 

buried. 
HI. — Hectoliter,  (metric  system.) 
H.  L. — House  of  Lords. 
Hm. — Hectometer,  (metric  system.) 
H.  M.— His  Majesty. 
H.  M.  P. — Hoc    monumentuvi  posuit, 

erected  this  monument. 
Hon. — Honourable. 
Hort. — Horticulture. 
Hos. — Hosea. 

H.  R. — House  of  Representatives. 
H.  R.  E. — Holy  Roman  Emperor. 
H.  R.  H.— His  Royal  Highness. 
Hr.  hm.— Herr,  Herrn— gentleman,  gen- 
tlemen. 
H.  R.  L  V .—Hie requiescitin pcu:e ,l^e.x9 

rests  in  peace. 
H.  S. — Hie  situs,  Here  lies. 
H.  S.  H. — His  Serene  Highness, 
h.  t. — Hoc  titalum,  this  title;  hoctituU, 

in  or  under  this  title. 
h.  v. — Hoc  verbum,  this  word  ;  hie  Z'er- 

bis,  in  these  words, 
hund. — Hundred. 
I.  n.  HL- One,^two,   three,   or  first, 

second,  third. 
la. — Iowa. 

lb.  or  ibid. — Ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 
Ich — Ichthyologj'. 
Ictus. — fu  risconsu  it  us. 
Id. — Ide/n,  the  same. 
Id.  T.— Idaho  Territory. 
i.  e. — Id  est,  that  is. 
I.    H.    S. — yesus    hominum    Salvator, 

Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men. 
ij. — Two,  imed.) 
111.— Illinois. 
In. — Inch  ;  inches, 
incog. — Incognito,  unknown. 
Incor. — Incorporated. 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIOXS. 


349 


Ind. — Indiana;   Index. 

I.  N.  D. — In  nantine  Dei,  in  the  name  of 

God. 
Ind.  Ter. — Indian  Territory. 
Indef. — Indefinite. 
In  f. — In  fine,  at  the  end  of  the  title,  law, 

or  paragraph  quoted. 
Inf — Infra,  beneath  or  below. 
in  lim. — In  limine,  at  the  outset. 
in  loc. — In   loco,  in   the  place;   on   the 

passage. 
in  pr. — In  principio,  in    the   beginning 

and  before  the  first  paragraph  of  a  law. 
I.  N.  R.  I. — yesiis i<i'azarenus,Rex  Ju- 

deeorutn,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  King  of 

the  Jews. 
Inst. — Instant,  of  this  month;  Institutes. 
In  sum. — In  sutnvia,  in  the  summary. 
Int. — Interest. 
Interj. — Interjection, 
in  trans. — In  transitu,  on  the  passage. 
Intro. — Introduction. 
I.O.  O.  F.— Independent  Order  of  Odd- 
Fellows. 
I.  O.  U. — I  owe  you. 
I.  q. — Idem  guod,  the  same  as. 
Isa. — Isaiah. 
Isl.— Island. 
Ital. — Italic ;    Italian. 
IV. — Four  or  fourth. 
IX. — Nine  or  ninth. 
J. — Justice  or  Judge.    JJ. — Justices. 
j. — One  (tned.~) 
J.  A. — Judge-Advocate. 
Jac. — Jacob. 
Jan. — Januarj'. 
Jas. — James. 
J.C.D.— 7«;-«  Civilis  Doctor,  Doctor 

of  Civil  Law. 
J.  D. — Jiirttm  Doctor,  jDoctor  of  Laws. 
Jer. — ^Jeremiah. 
Jno. — John. 
Jona. — Jonathan. 
Jos. — Joseph. 
Josh. — Joshua. 
J.  P. — Justice  of  the  Peace. 
J.  Prob. — Judge  of  Probate. 
J.  '^.—facohus  Rex,  King  James. 
Jr.  or  Jun. — Junior. 
J.  U.  D.    or  J.  V.  D. — Juris  utriusqzte 

Doctor,  Doctor  of  both  Laws  tof  the 

Canon  and  the  Civil  Law). 
Jud.— Judith. 
Judg.— Judges. 


Judge-Adv. — Judge-Advocate. 

Jul.  Per. — Julian  Period. 

Jus.  P. — ^Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Just. — ^Justinian. 

J.  W. — Junior  Warden. 

K. — King. 

K.  A. — Knight  of  St.  Andrew,  in  Russia, 

K.  -A..  N. — Knight  of  Alexander  Nevskoi, 
in  Russia. 

Kan. — Kansas. 

K.  B. — King's  Bench. 

K.  B. — Knight  of  the  Bath. 

K.  B.  A. — Knight  of  St.  Bento  d'Avis,  in 
Portugal. 

K.  B.  E.— Knight  of  the  Black  Eagle,  in 
Russia. 

K.  C. — King's  Council. 

K.  C. — Knight  of  the  Crescent,  in  Turkey. 

K.  C.  B. — Knight  Commander  of  the 
Bath. 

K.  C.  H. — Knight  Commander  of  Ha- 
nover. 

K.  C.  S. — Knight  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain. 

K.  E. — Knight  of  the  Elephant,  in  Den- 
mark. 

K.  F. — Knight  of  Ferdinand  of  Spain. 

K.  F.  M. — Knight  of  St.  Ferdinand  and 
Merit,  in  Sicily. 

Kg. — Kilogram,  (metric  system.) 

K.  G.— Knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.  G.  C. — Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross. 

K.  G.  C.  B.— Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross 
of  the  Bath. 

K.  G.  F. — Knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece, 
in  Spain. 

K.  G.  H.— Knight  of  the  Guelphs  of  Ha- 
nover. 

K.  G.  v.— Knight  of  Gustavus  Vasa  of 
Sweden. 

K.  H. — Knight  of  Hanover. 

Ki. — Kings. 

Kingd. — Kingdom. 

K.  J.— Knight  of  St.  Joachim. 

Kl.— Kiloliter,  (metric  system.) 

K.  L.  or  K.  L.  A.— Knight  of  Leopold 
of  Austria. 

K.  L.  H.— Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Ho- 
nour. 

Km. — Kilometer,  (metric  system.) 

K.  M.— Knight  of  Malta. 

K.  Mess.— King's  Messenger. 

K.  M.  H.— Knight  of  Merit,  in  Holstein. 

K.  M.  J. — Knight  of  Maximilian  Joseph 
of  Bavaria. 


35° 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIONS. 


K.  M.  T.— Knight  of  Maria  Theresa  (of 

Austria.) 
Knick. — Knickerbocker. 
K.  N.  S.— Knight  of  the   Royal   North 

Star,  (in  Sweden.) 
Knt.  or  Kt.— Knight. 
K.  P.— Knight  of  St.  Patrick  ;  Knight  of 

Pythias. 
Kr.— Kreuzer,  (German  coin.) 
K.  R.  C— Knight  of  the  Red  Cross. 
K.  R.  E.— Knight  of  the  Red  Eagle,  (in 

Prussia.) 
Ks. — Kansas. 

K.  S.  A.— Knight  of  St. Anne  (of  Rus- 
sia.) 
K.   S.   E.— Knight    of    St.   Esprit,    (in 

France.) 
K.  S.  F.— Knight   of  St.  Fernando  (of 

Spain.)  I 

K.  S.  F.  M.— Knight  of  St.   Ferdinand 

and  Merit,  (in  Naples.) 
K.  S.  G.— Knight  of  St.  George  (of  Rus- 
sia.) 
K.  S.  H.— Knight  of  St.  Hubert  (of  Ba- 
varia.) 
K.  S.  I.— Knight  of  the  Star  of  India. 
K.S.J. — Knight  of    St.   Januarius    (of 

Naples.) 
K.  S.  L. — Knight  of  the  Sjn  and  Lion, 

(in  Persia.) 
K.  S.  M.  &  S.  G.— Knight  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George  (of  the  Ionian  Islands.) 
K.  S.  P. — Knight  of   St.    Stanislaus  of 

Poland. 
K.  S.  S.— Knight  of  the  Southern  Star 

(of  the  Brazils.) 
K.  S.  S. — Knight  of  the  Sword,  in  Swe- 
den. 
K.  S.  W.— Knight  of    St.  Wladimir  (of 

Russia.) 
K.  T. — Knight  of  the  Thistle;    Knight 

Templar. 
Kt.— Knight. 
K.   T.   S.— Knight   of   the   Tower   and 

Sword  On  Portugal.) 
K.W.— Knight  of  William  (of  the  Neth- 
erlands.) 
K.  W.  E.-Knight  of  the  White  Eagle, 

(in  Poland.) 
Ky. — Kentucky. 

L. — Fifty  or  fiftieth  ;  Liber,  book. 
I. — liter,  Cmetric  system.) 
'>.  C  or  1. — Libra,  or  libra,  pound  or 
pounds  sterling. 


L.  or  £,  s.  d. — Pounds,  shillings,  pence. 

La. — Louisiana. 

Lam. — Lamentations. 

Lat. — Latitude  ;    Latin. 

Lb.  or  ft. — Libra   or   libra,  pound   or 

pounds  in  weight. 
L.  C. — Lord  Chancellor  ;  Lord  Chamber- 
lain. 
L.  C. — Lower  Canada. 
1.  c — Lower-case. 
L.  C.  J. — Lord  Chief-Justice. 
L.  D. — Lepide  dictum,  finely  said ;  Lady- 
Day. 
Ld. — Lord. 
Ldp. — Lordship. 
Leg. — Legate. 
Legis. — Legislature. 
Lev. — Leviticus. 
Lex. — Lexicon. 
L.  I.— Long  Island. 
Lib. — Liber,  book. 
Lieut. — Lieutenant. 
Lieut. -Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut. -Gen. — Lieutenant-General. 
Lieut. -Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor. 
Linn. — Linnaean. 
Lit. — Literally  ;  Literature. 
Liv. — IJvre,  book. 

LL.  B. — Legum  Baccalaureiis,   Bache- 
lor of  Laws. 
LL.  D.—Legn/n     Doctor,    Doctor    of 

Laws. 
1.  1. — Loco  laudato,  in  the  place  quoted, 
loc.  cit. — Loco  citato,  in  the  place  cited. 

Lon. — Longitude. 

L.  S. — Locus  sigilli,  place  of  the  seal. 

Lt. — Lieutenant. 

LX. — Sixty  cr  sixtieth. 

LXX. — Seventy  or  seventieth. 

LXX.— The  Septuagint  (Version  of  the 
Old  Testament.) 

LXXX.— Eighty  or  eightieth. 

m. — Meter,  (metric  system.) 

M. — Mille,  a  thousand  ;  Meridics,  nooa 

M.  or  Mons. — Monsieur. 

M.  A.— Master  of  Arts. 
I  Mace. — Maccabees. 

Mad. — Madam. 

Mad.  Univ. — Madison  University. 

Mag. — Magazine. 

Maj. — Major. 

Maj.-Gen. — Major-General. 

Mai.— Malachi. 

Man. — Manasses. 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIONS. 


351 


Mar.— March ;  Maritime. 

M.  A.N.  S.— Member  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences. 

March. — Marchioness. 

Marg. — Margin. 

Marg.  Tran.— Marginal  Translation. 

Marq. — Marquis. 

Masc. — Masculine. 

Mass. — Massachusetts. 

Math. — Mathematics  ;  Mathematician. 

Matt.— Matthew. 

Max. — Maxim. 

M.  B. — MedkiniE  Baccalaure:is,  Bache- 
lor of  Medicine. 

M.  B. — jMiisicce  Baccalaztreiis ,  Bachelor 
of  IMusic. 

M.  B.  F.  et  H.— Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Ireland.     -  - 

M.  C. — Member  of  Congress. 

Mch.— March. 

Md.— Maryland. 

M-  D. — Mcdicinie  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Medicine. 

M.  E. — Methodist  Episcopal ;  Military  or 
Mechanical  Engineer;  Most  excellent. 

Me.— Maine. 

Med. — Medicine. 

Mem. — Memorandum. 

Mem. — Meine7ito,  remember. 

Me  re. — Mercurj' . 

Messrs.  or  MM. — Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 

Met.— Metaphysics. 

Metal. — Metallurgy. 

Meteor. — Meteorology. 

Meth. — Methodist. 

Mex. — Mexico  or  Mexican. 

m.  ft. — Mistura  fiat,  Let  a  mixture  be 
made. 

mg. — milligram,  (metric  system.) 

Mg. — Myriagram,  (metric  system.) 

M.-Goth.— Moeso-Gothic. 

Mgr. — Monseigneur. 

M.  H.  S.— Member  of  the  Historical  So- 
ciety; Massachusetts  Historical  So- 
ciety. 

Mic— Micah. 

Mich. — Michigan. 

Mil.— Military. 

Min. — Mineralogy  ;  Minute. 

Minn. — Minnesota. 

Min.  Plen. — Minister  Plenipotentiary. 

Miss. — Mississippi. 

ml. — milliliter,  (metric  system.) 

Ml. — Myrialiter,  (metric  system.) 

30 


M.  L.  A. — Mercantile  Library  Associa- 
tion. 

Mile. — Mademoiselle. 

mm. — millimeter,  (metric  system.) 

Mm. — Myriameter,  (metric  system.) 

MM. — Their  Majesties  ;  Messieurs,  Gen- 
tlemen ;  Two  thousand. 

Mme.— Madame. 

M.  M.  S. — Moravian  Missionary  Society. 

M.  M.  S.  S. — Alassachusettensis  Medi- 
cincE  Societatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the 
Massachusetts  Medical  Society. 

Mo. — Missouri ;  Month. 

Mod. — Modern. 

Mon. — Monday. 

Mons. — Monsieur,  Sir. 

^los.— Months. 

M.  P. — Member  of  Parliament ;  Member 
of  Police. 

M.  P.  P.— Member  of  Provincial  Parlia- 
ment. 

M.  R.— INIaster  of  the  Rolls. 

JNIr. —Mister. 

M.  R.  A.  S.— Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society ;  Member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Science. 

M.  R.  C.  C— Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Chemistrj'. 

M.  R.  C.  S.— Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  G.  S.— Member  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

M.  R.  L— Member  ofthe  Royal  Institu- 
tion. 

M.  R.  I.  A.— Member  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy. 

Mrs. — Mistress. 

M.  R.  S.  L.— Member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Literature. 

M.  S. — Metnoriip  sacrum,  Sacred  to  the 
memory  :  Master  of  the  Sciences. 

MS. — Maaiiicripttiin,  manuscript. 

MSS. — j\Ianuscripta,  manuscripts. 

Mt.- — Mount  or  mountain. 

Mus.  B. — Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.  D. — Doctor  of  Music. 

M.  W. — Most  Worthy ;  Most  Worship- 
ful. 

Myth. — Mythology. 

N. — North  ;  Number  ;  Noun  ;  Neuter. 

n. — Note. 

N.  A. — North  America. 

Nah. — Nahum. 

Nat.  Hist.— Natural  History. 


352 


ABBRE  VIA  TIONS. 


Nath. — Nathanael  or  Nathaniel. 

N.  B. — New  Brunswick  ;  North  Britain  ; 
Nota  bene,  mark  well ;  take  notice. 

N.  C. — North  Carolina. 

n.  d. — No  date. 

N.  E. — New  England;  Northeast. 

Neb. — Nebraska. 

Neh. — Nehemiah. 

n.  e.  i. — Non  est  inventus,  he  is  not  found. 

nem.  con.,  or  nem.  diss. — Nemine  con- 
tradicente,  or  nemine  disseniiente,  no 
one  opposing ;    unanimously. 

Neut. — Neuter  (gender.) 

Nev. — Nevada. 

New  M. — New  Mexico. 

New  Test,  or  N.  T. — New  Testament. 

N.  F. — Newfoundland. 

N.  G.- — New  Granada  ;  Noble  Grand. 

N.  H. — New  Hampshire;    New  Haven. 

N.  H.  H.  S.— New  Hampshire  Historical 
Society. 

Ni.  pri. — Nisi  prius. 

N.  J. — New  Jersey. 

n.  1. — Non  liquet,  it  does  not  appear. 

N.  lat. — North  latitude. 

N.  M.— New  Mexico. 

N.  N.  E. — North-northeast. 

N.  N.  W. — North-northwest. 

N.  O. — New  Orleans. 

No. — Numero,  number. 

Nol  pros. — Nolle  prosequi,  unwilling  to 
proceed. 

Nom.  or  nom. — Nominative. 

Non  con. — Not  content ;  dissenting, 
(House  of  Lords.) 

Non.  cul. — Non  culpabilis,  not  guilty. 

Non  obst. — Non  obstante,  notwithstand- 
ing. 

Non  pros. — Non  pyosequitur,  he  does 
not  prosecute. 

Non  seq. — Non  sequitur,  it  does  not 
follow. 

Nos. — Numbers. 

Nov. — November. 

N.  P.— Notary  Public. 

N.  S.— New  Style,  (after  1752;)  Nova 
Scotia. 

n.  u. — Name  or  names  unknown. 

Num. — Numbers  ;  Numeral. 

N.  V.  M.— Nativity  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

N.  W. — Northwest. 

N.  Y.— New  York. 

N.Y.  H.S.— New  York  Historical  So- 
ciety. 


O. — Ohio  ;   Octarius,  a  pint. 

Ob. —  Obiit,  he  or  she  died. 

Obad.— Obadiah. 

Obs. — Obsolete  ;  Observatory  ;  Observa- 
tion. 

Obt.  or  obdt. — Obedient. 

Oct. — October. 

O.  F.— Odd-Fellow  or  Odd-Fellows. 

O.  K. — All  correct,  (slang.) 

Old  Test,  or  O.  T.— Old  Testament. 

Olym. — Olympiad. 

Opt. — Optics. 

Or. — Oregon. 

Orig. — Originally. 

Ornith. — Ornithology. 

O.  S.— Old  Style,  (before  1752.) 

O.  U.  A. — Order  of  United  Americans. 

Oxf— Oxford. 

Oxon. — Oxonia,  Ojconii,  Oxford. 

oz. — Ounce. 

P. — Particula,  a  little  part,  as  much  as 
can  be  taken  between  the  ends  of  two 
fingers  ;  pondere,  by  weight. 

P.  or  p. — Page  ;   Part ;  Participle. 

Pa.  or  Penna. — Pennsylvania. 

Pal. — Palaeontology. 

Par. — Paragraph. 

Par.  pas. — Parallel  passage. 

Pari. — Parliament. 

Pathol. — Pathology. 

Payt. — Payment. 

Pb. — Plumbum ,  lead. 

P.    C. —  Patres     Conscripti,    Conscript 

Fathers;  Senators. 
P.  C. — Privy  Council ;  Privy  Councillor. 
Pd.— Paid. 

P.  E. — Protestant  Episcopal. 
P.  E.  I.  —  Prince  Edward  Island. 
Pent. — Pentecost. 
Per,  or  pr. — By  the,  or  per  lb. 
Per  an. — Per  annum,  by  the  year. 
Per  cent. — Per  centum,  by  the  hundred. 
Peri. — Perigee. 
Pet. — Peter. 
P.  G.— Past  Grand. 
Phar. — Pharmacy. 

Ph.  B. — Philosophice  Baccalaureus,  Ba- 
chelor of  Philosophy. 
Ph.  D. — Philosophite  Doctor,  Doctor  of 

Philosophy. 
Ph.  (i. — Pharinaciof  Graduatus,  Grad- 
uate in  Pharmacy. 
Phil. — Philip;  Philippians;  Philosophy; 
Philemon. 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIONS. 


353 


Phila.  or  Phil.— Philadelphia.  1 

Philera. — Philemon. 

Philom. — Philoviathes ,  a  lover  of  learn- 
ing. 

Philomath. — Phiio>Hathentaticus,a.\o\er 
of  the  mathematics. 

Phil.Trans. — Philosophical  Transactions. 

Phren. — Phrenology. 

P.  H.  S. — Pennsylvania  Historical  So- 
ciety. 

Pinx.  or  pxt. — Pin.xit,  he  painted  it. 

P.  J. — President  Judge;  Police  Justice. 

PI.  or  Plur.— Plural. 

Plff.— Plaintiff. 

P.  M. — Post  meridiem,  afternoon  ;  Post- 
master ;  Passed  Midshipman. 

P.  ]M.  G. — Postmaster-General. 

P.  O.— Post-Office. 

Pop. — Population. 

Port. — Portugal  or  Portuguese. 

P.  P. — Pater  patria,  the  father  of  his 
country  ;  Propositian  publice,  public 
notification. 

P.  P.  C. — Pour  prendre  conge,  to  take 
leave. 

Pp.  or  pp. — Pages. 

Pph.— Pamphlet. 

P.  R. — Populiis  Romanus,  the  Roman 
people. 

P.  R.  A. — President  of  Royal  Academy. 

P.  R.  C. — Post  Romanutn  conditum, 
from  the  building  of  Rome. 

Pref— Preface. 

Prep. — Preposition. 

Pres. — President. 

Prin. — Principally. 

Prob. — Problem. 

Prof. — Professor. 

Pron. — Pronoun  ;  Pronunciation. 

Prop. — Proposition. 

Prot. — Protestant. 

Pro  tern. — Pro  tempore,  for  the  time 
being. 

Prov. — Proverbs  ;  Provost. 

prox. — Proximo,  next  (month.) 

P.  R.  S. — President  of  the  Royal  Society. 

P.  S. — Post  scriptum.  Postscript ;  Privy 
Seal. 

Ps. — Psalm  or  Psalms. 

Pt. — Part;  Pint;  Payment;  Point;  Port. 

p.  t. — Post-town. 

P.  T.  O. — Please  turn  over. 

Pub. — Publisher;  Publication;  Pub- 
lished ;  Public. 


Pub.  Doc. — Public  Documents, 
p.  v. — Post-village, 
pwt. — Pennyweight ;  pennyweights. 
Q. — Queen  ;  Question, 
q. — quintal ;    Quasi,  as  it  were;   almost. 
Q.  B. — Queen's  Bench. 
Q.  C. — Queen's  College  ;  Queen's  Coun- 
sel, 
q.  d. — Quasi  dirat,  as  if  he  should  say  ; 

quasi  dictum,  as  if  said ;   gzfasi  dix- 

isset,  as  if  he  had  said, 
q.  e. — Quod  est,  which  is. 
q.  e.  d. —  Quod   erat    demonstrandum , 

which  was  to  be  proved, 
q.  e.  f. — Quod  erat  faciendum ,   which 

was  to  be  done. 
q.  e.  i. —  Quod  erat  inveniendum,  which 

was  to  be  found  out. 
q.  1. — Quantum  libet,  as  much   as  you 

please. 
Q.  M. — Quartermaster, 
qm. —  Quomodo,  how  ;  by  what  means. 
Q.  M.  G. — Quartermaster-General, 
q.  p.  orq.  pi. — Quantum  placet, as  much 

as  you  please. 
Qr. — Quarter. 
Q.  S. — Quarter  Sessions, 
q.    s. — Quantum    sufficit,    a    sufficient 

quantity, 
qt.- — Quart. 

qu.  or  qy.  {^.).—Qu(Ere,  inquire;    query. 
Quar. — Quarterly. 
Ques. — Question, 
q.  v. — Quod  vide,  which  see  ;   Quantion 

vis,  as  much  as  you  will. 
9(. — Recipe,  take;   Response,  in  church 

books. 
R. — Regina,  Queen  ;  Rex,  King ;  River ; 

Rood;  Rod. 
R.  A. — Royal  Academy  ;    Royal  Acade- 
mician; Royal  Artillery. 
R.  A  — Ruyal  Arch  ;  Royal  Association. 
R.  E. — Royal  Engineers. 
Rec. — Recipe  ;  Recorder. 
Reed. — Received. 
Rec.  Sec. — Recording  Secretary. 
Rect. — Rector;  Receipt. 
Ref. — Reference. 
Ref  Ch. — Reformed  Church. 
Reg. — Register  ;  Regular. 
Reg.  Prof. — Regius  Professor. 
Regr. — Registrar. 
Regt. — Regiment. 
Rel. — Religion. 


354 


ABBRE  VIA  TIONS. 


Rep. — Representative;  Republican  ;  Re- 
port. 

Rev. — Reverend  ;  Revelation  (Book  of;) 
Review  ;  Revenue  ;  Revise. 

Rhet. — Rhetoric. 

R.  I.— Rhode  Island. 

Richd. — Richard. 

R.  M.— Royal  Marines  ;  Royal  Mail. 

R.  M.  S.— Royal  Mail  Steamer. 

R.  N.— Royal  Navy. 

Ro. — Recto,  right-hand  page. 

Robt. — Robert. 

Rom. — Romans  (Book  of.) 

Rom.  Cath. — Roman  Catholic. 

R.  P. — Regms  Professor,  the  King's 
Professor. 

R.  P.  E. — Reformed  Protestant  Episco- 
pal. 

R.  R.— Railroad. 

R.  S. — Recording  Secretary. 

Rs. — Responsus  to  answer. 

R.  S.  A. — Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries; 
Royal  Scottish  Academy. 

R.  S.  D. — Royal  Society  of  Dublin. 

R.  S.  E. — Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

R.  S.  L. — Royal  Society  of  London. 

R.  S.  S. — Regitp  Societatis  Socius,  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society. 

R.  S.  V.  P. — Repondez,  s'il  vous  plait, 
answer,  if  you  please. 

Rt.  Hon. — Right  Honourable. 

Rt.  Rev." — Right  Reverend. 

Rt.  Wpful.— Right  Worshipful. 

R.  W.— Right  Worthy. 

S. — South;  Saint;  Scribe;  Sulphur; 
Sunday;  Sun;  Series;  Soliiius,a.s\\\\- 
ling;  Stere,  (metric  system.) 

S.  A. — South  America;  South  Africa; 
South  Australia. 

s.  a. — Secundum  arteiii,  according  to  art. 

Sam. — Samuel. 

S.  A.  S. — Societatis  Antiquariorum  So- 
cius, Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries. 

Sat. — Saturday. 

Sax. — Saxon. 

Sax.  Chron. — Saxon  Chronicle. 

S.  C. — Senatus  Consultuvt ,  a  decree  of 
the  Senate  ;  South  Carolina. 

So. — Sculpsit,  he  engraved  it. 

so.  or  scil. — Scilicet,  namely. 

Scan.  Mag. — Scandaluin  tiiagnatuin , 
scandal  of  the  great. 

Schol. — Scholium,  a  note. 


Schr. — Schooner. 

Sci.  fa. — Scire  facias,  to  show  cause. 

Sclav. — Sclavonic. 

Sculp,  or  sculp. — Sculpsit,  he  engraved  it. 

S.  D. — Salutem  dicit,  sends  health. 

S.  E.— Southeast. 

Sec. — Secretary;  Second. 

Sec.  Leg. — Secretary  of  Legation. 

Sec.  leg. — Secundum  legem,  according 
to  law. 

Sec.  reg. — Secundutn  regulam,  accord- 
ing to  rule. 

Sect.^ — Section. 

Sem. — Semble,  it  seems. 

Sen. — Senate;  Senator;  Senior. 

Sept. — September:  Septuagint. 

Seq. — Sequentia,  following';  sequitur,  it 
follows. 

Ser. — Series. 

Serg. — Sergeant. 

Serg.  Maj. — Sergeant-Major. 

Servt. — Servant. 

S.  G. — South  Georgia  :  Solicitor  General. 

Shak. — Shakspeare. 

S.  H.  S. — Societatis  Historia  Socius, 
Fellow  of  the  Historical  Society. 

Sing. — Singular. 

S.  Isl. — Sandwich  Islands. 

S.  J. — Society  of  Jesus. 

S.  J.  C. — Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

Skr. — Sanskrit. 

S.  L. — Solicitor  at  Law. 

S.  lat. — South  latitude. 

S.  M.— State  Militia  ;  Short  Metre  ;  Ser- 
geant-Major; Sons  of  Malta. 

sm.  c. — Small  capitals. 

S.  M.  Lond.  Soc.  Cor. — Societatis  Medi- 
cce  Londonensis  Socius  Cor.,  Corrc 
sponding  Member  of  the  London 
Medical  Society. 

s.  n. — Secundum  naturavt,  according  to 
nature. 

Soc.  Isl. — Society  Islands. 

Sol. — Solomon  ;  Solution. 

Sol. -Gen. — Solicitor-General. 

S.  of  Sol. — Song  of  Solomon. 

S.P. — Sine  prole ,  without  issue  ;  salutem 
precatur,  he  prays  for  his  prosperity. 

S.  P.  A-  S. — Societatis  Philosophicce 
Americana^  Socius,  Member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society. 

S.  P.  C.  A. — Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

S.  P.  D. — Salutem  plurimaiu  dicit,  he 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIONS. 


355 


wishes  much  health,  or  sends  his  best 

respects. 
S.  P.  G. — Society  for  the  Propagation  of 

the  Gospel. 
Sp.  gr. — Specific  gravity. 
S.  P.  Q.  R. — Senatiis   Popiilusque  Ro- 

viani,  the  Senate  and  people  of  Rome. 
S.  P.  R.  S.— Sublime  Prince  of  the  Royal 

Secret. 
Sq.  ft. — Square  foot  or  square  feet. 
Sq.  in. — Square  inch  or  inches. 
Sq.  m. — Square  mile  or  miles. 
Sq.  r. — Square  rood  or  roods. 
Sq.  yd. — Square  yard. 
Sr. — Sir;  Senior. 
S.  R.  I. — Sacrum  Roinanuin  Imperiunt, 

Holy  Roman  Empire. 
S.  R.  S. — Societatis  Regi<E  Socius,  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society. 
S.  S. — Sunday-school. 
SS. — Saints. 

SS.  or  SS. — Sciiicet,  to  wit. 
ss. — Semis,  half. 

S.  S.  C.— Solicitor  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
S.  S.  E. — South-southeast. 
S.  S.  W. — South-southwest. 
St. — Saint;  Street;  Strait. 
Stat.— Statute. 
S.   T.   D. — Sacrce    Theologia    Doctor, 

Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Ster.  or  Stg. — Sterling. 
S.  T.  P. — SacrcE   Theologice   Professor, 

Professor  of  Divinity. 
Subj. — Subjunctive. 
Subst. — Substantive. 
Suff.— Suffi.x. 
Su.-Goth. — Suio-Gothic. 
Su.,  Sun.  or  Sund. — Svmday. 
Sup. — Supplement :  Superfine. 
Supt. — Superintendent. 
Surg. — Surgeon  ;  Surgery. 
Surg. -Gen. — Surgeon-General. 
Surv. — Surveyor. 
Surv.-Gen. — Surveyor-General. 
Sus. — Susannah. 

s.  v. — Siibverbo,  under  the  word  or  title. 
S.  W. — Senior  Warden  ;  Southwest. 
Syn. — Synonym  ;  Synonymous. 
T. — Territory, 
t. — tonneau,  (metric  system.) 
T.—  Tuttz,  all  together. 
T.  or  torn. — Tome,  volume. 
Ta. — Tantalum  (Columbium.) 
T.  E. — Topographical  Engineers. 


Tenn. — Tennessee. 

Ter. — Territory. 

Tex. — Texas. 

Text.  Rec. —  Textus  Receptxis,  the  Re- 
ceived Text. 

Thlr. — Thaler,  (German  coin.) 

Th.  or  Thurs. — Thursday. 

Theo. — Theodore. 

Theol. — Theology  ;  Theological. 

Theoph. — Theophilus. 

Thess. — Thessalonians. 

Tho'. — Though. 

Thos. — Thomas. 

Thro' . — Through. 

Tim. — Timothy. 

Tit.— Titus. 

T.  O. — Turn  over. 

Tob.— Tobit. 

Tom. — Volume. 

Topog. — Topography  ;  Topographical. 

Tr. — Transpose ;  Translator ;  Transla- 
tion. 

Tr. — Trustee.     Trs. — Trustees. 

tr. —  Trillo,  a  shake. 

Trans. — Translator;  Translation;  Trans- 
actions. 

Treas. — Treasurer. 

Trin.- — Trinity. 

Tues.  or  Tu. — Tuesday. 

Ty  p .  — Typographer. 

U.  C.— Upper  Canada. 

U.  C. — Urbe  condita,  year  of  Rome. 

U.  E.  I.  C— United  East  India  Com- 
pany. 

U.  G.  R.  R. — Underground  Railway. 

U.J.  D. —  Utriusqiie  Juris  Doctor  ,Y>ac- 
tor  of  both  Laws,  (Civil  and  Canon.) 

U.  K. — United  Kingdom. 

ult. — Ultimo,  last ;  of  the  last  month. 

Unit. — Unitarian. 

Univ. — University. 

U.  P.  C. — United  Presbyterian  Church. 

U.  S.— United  States. 

u.  s. — Ut  supra  or  uti  supra,  as  above. 

U.  S.  A. — United  States  of  America  ; 
United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  M.— United  States  Mail ;  United 
States  Marines. 

U.  S.  M.  A.— United  States  Military 
Academy. 

U.  S.  N.— United  States  Navy. 

U.  S.  N.  A. — United  States  Naval  Aca- 
demy. 

U.  S.  S. — United  States  Senate. 


356 


ABB  RE  VIA  TIONS. 


U.  S.  v.— United  States  Volunteers. 

U.  T— Utah  Territory. 

V. — Five  or  fifth. 

v.— Violin;  VV.— Violins. 

V.  or  vid. —  Vide,  see. 

V.  or  vs. —  Versus,  against;  Versiculo, 
in  such  a  verse. 

Va. — Virginia. 

Vat. — Vatican. 

V.  C. — Vice-Chancellor. 

V.  D.  W.—  Verbi  Dei  Minister,  Minis- 
ter of  God's  Word. 

Ven. — Venerable. 

Ven.  or  Ven.  Fa. —  Venire  facias  ,3,  writ 
to  a  sheriflf  to  summon  a  jury. 

Ven.  E.x. —  Venditione  exponas,  a  writ 
of  execution  directed  to  a  sheriflf  to  sell 
goods,  etc. 

Ver. — Verse. 

V.  G. — Vicar-General. 

V.  g. —  Verbi gratia,  as  for  example. 

VI. — Six  or  sixth. 

VII. — Seven  or  seventh. 

VIII. — Eight  or  eighth. 

Vice.  Pres.  or  V.  P. — Vice-President. 

Vise. — Viscount. 

viz.  or  vl. —  Videlicit,  to  wit;  namely; 
that  is  to  say. 

Vo. —  Verso,  left-hand  page. 

Vol. — Volume. 

V.  R. — K/c^^r/a  ./??_§-/««,  Queen  Victoria. 

Vt. — Vermont. 

Vul. — Vulgate  (Version.) 

w.  11. —  Varies  lectiones,  different  read- 
ings. 

V.  y. — Various  years. 

W.— West. 

Wash. — Washington. 

Wed. — Wednesday. 

w.  f. — Wrong  fount. 

VVhf.— Wharf. 

W,  I.— West  India. 

Wise. — Wisconsin 

Wisd.— Wisdom,  (Book  of.) 

Wk.— Week. 


W.  Ion. — West  longitude. 

W.  M.— Worshipful  Master. 

Wm.— William. 

W.  N.  W. — West-northwest. 

Wpful.— Worshipful. 

W.  S. — Writer  to  the  Signet. 

W.  S.  W.— West-southwest. 

W.  T. — Washington  Territory. 

Wt.— Weight. 

W.  Va. — West  Virginia. 

X. — Ten  or  tenth. 

XI.— Eleven. 

XII.— Twelve. 

XIII.— Thirteen. 

XIV.— Fourteen. 

XV.— Fifteen. 

XVI. — Sixteen. 

XV 1 1 .  — Seventeen. 

XVIII.— Eighteen. 

XIX. — Nineteen. 

XX. — Twenty. 

XXX.— Thirty. 

XL.— Forty. 

XC.— Ninety. 

X.  or  Xt.— Christ. 

Xmas  or  Xm. — Christmas. 

Xn.  or  Xtian. — Christian. 

Xnty.  or  Xty. — Christianity. 

Xper.  or  Xr. — Christopher. 

Yd.— Yard. 

y.  or  y^. — The. 

y". — Them. 

y". — Then. 

y' — Their;  Your. 

ys. — This. 

yt.— That. 

Y.  M,  C.  A.— Young   Men's  Christian 

Association. 
Yrs. — Years  ;  Yours. 
Zach. — Zachary. 
Zech. — Zechariah. 
Zeph.^ — Zephaniah. 
Zool. — Zoology. 
&.— And. 
&c. — And  so  forth. 


FOREIGN   WORDS   AND   PHRASES, 
WITH  TRANSLATIONS. 


A  bus. — Down  with. 

A  capite  ad  calcem. — From  head  to  foot. 

A  fin. — To  the  end. 

A  fortiori. — With  stronger  reason. 

A  V abandon . — At  random. 

A    la   bonne  heure. — Opportunely;    in 

good  time. 
A  la  derobee. — By  stealth. 
A  la  mode. — According  to  the  fashion. 
A  main  armee. — With  force  of  arms. 
A  mensa  et  thoro. — From  bed  and  board. 
A  posteriori. — From   effect    to   cause  ; 

from  the  latter. 
A  priori. — From  cause  to  effect;    from 

the  former. 
A  tempo  giusto. — To  sing  or  play  in  true 

time.     (Music.) 
A  tempo    rimo. — To  restore  the  original 

movement.     (Music.) 
A  vinculo  matrimonii. — From  the  tie  of 

marriage. 
A  voire  sante. — To  your  health. 
Ab  extra. — From  without. 
Ab  initio. — From  the  beginning. 
Ab  origine. — From  the  beginning. 
Ab  ovo. — From  the  beginning. 
Ab  urbe  condita. — From  the  building  of 

the  city  (Rome);  abridged  A.  U.  C. 
Abit  invidia. — All    offence    apart;    let 

there  be  no  malice. 
Absit  omen. — May  it  not  prove  ominous. 
Absque  hoc. — Without  this  or  that. 
Ac  etiam. — And  also. 
Actum  est  de  republica. — It  is  all  over 

with  the  commonwealth. 
Ad  absurdum. — To  show  the  ab.surdity. 
Ad  arbitrium. — At  pleasure. 


Ad  astra  per  aspera. — To   the    stars 

through  difficulties. 
Ad  captandutn   valgus. — To  catch  the 

mob  or  the  vulgar. 
Ad  eundem. — To  the  same  point  or  de- 
gree. 
Adfinein. — To  the  end. 
Ad   Grcecas    Calendas. — An    indefinite 

postponement.     (The  Greeks  had  no 

calends.) 
Ad hominem. — To  the  man  (that  is,  to  the 

interests  or  the  passions  of  the  man.) 
Ad  infinitum. — Without  end. 
Ad  inquirendutn. — For  inquiry. 
Ad  interim. — In  the  mean  while. 
Ad  libitum. — At  pleasure. 
Ad  litem. — For  the  action  (at  law.) 
Ad  nauseam. — To  a  disgusting  degree. 
Ad  referendum. — For  further  considera- 
tion. 
Ad  rem. — To  the  purpose. 
Ad   ttngueni. — To    the   nail;    exactly; 

nicely. 
Ad  valorem. — According  to  the  value. 
Addendtim. — An  addition  or  appendix. 
Adhuc  sub  j'udice  lis  est. — The  affair  is 

not  yet  decided. 
Aigrescit    medendo. — The     remedy    is 

worse  than  the  disease. 
.^quam  servare  mentem. — To  preserve 

an  equable  mind. 
JEquo  animo. — With  an  equable  mind. 
Aire  perennius. — More     lasting     than 

brass ;  enduring  ever. 
Affaire  du   coeur. — A  love   affair;    an 

amour. 
Afflatus. — Inspiration. 

357 


358 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Agenda. — Things  to  be  done. 

Agitato. — A  broken  style  of  performance, 
to  awaken  surprise,     i Music.) 

Agnus  Dei. — Lamb  of  God. 

Aide-de-camp. — Assistant  to  a  general. 

Aide-toi,  et  le  del  t'aidera. — Help  thy- 
self, and  Heaven  will  help  thee. 

Alere flatnvtain .—Ilq  feed  the  flame. 

Alfresco. — In  the  open  air. 

Alga. — A  kind  of  sea-weed. 

Alguazil. — A  Spanish  constable. 

Alias. — Otherwise  ;  elsewhere. 

Alibi. — Elsewhere ;  not  present. 

Alis  volat  propriis. — She  flies  with  her 
own  wings. 

Aliunde. — From  some  other  quarter  or 
person. 

Allegretto. — A  movement  quicker  than 
andante,  but  not  so  quick  as  allegro. 
(Music.) 

Allemande. — A  kind  of  German  dance. 

Alma  mater. — Benign  mother  (applied 
to  a  university.) 

Alter  ego. — A  second  self. 

Alto  octavo. — An  octave  higher. 

Alto  relievo. — High  relief.    (Sculpture.) 

Alto  ripieno. — The  tenor  of  a  great 
chorus. 

Alto  violino. — A  small  tenor  violin. 

Amende. — Compensation;  apology. 

Ami  du peuple. — Friend  of  the  people. 

Amicus  curicE. — A  friend  of  the  court. 

Amor patrice. — Love  of  country. 

Amour propre. — Self-love ;  vanity. 

Ancien  regime. — Former  administra- 
tion; ancient  order  of  things. 

Andante. — Moderately  slow  movement, 
between  largo  and  allegro.      (Music.) 

Anglice. — In  English. 

Anguis  in  herba. — A  snake  in  the  grass. 

Anitnis  opibusque  parati. — Ever  ready 
with  our  lives  and  property. 

Animo  etfide.—^y  (or  with)  courage 
and  faith. 

Animo  facto. — Really  and  truly. 

Animus  furandi. — Felonius  intent. 

Anno  Domini. — In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

Anno  lucis. — In  the  year  of  light. 

Anno  mundi. — In  the  year  of  the  world. 

Annus  mirabilis. — Year  of  wonders. 

Ante  bellum. — Before  the  war. 

Ante  lucem. — Before  light. 

Ante  meridiem. — Before  noon. 

Apergu. — A  brief  sketch  of  any  subject. 


Appogiatura. — A  note  in  a  smaller  char- 
acter  than  the   regular   notes   of   the 
piece.     (Music.) 
Apropos  (Vr.  apropos.) — To  the  purpose. 
Aqua  vita". — Water  of  life  ;  brandy. 
Arbiter  elegantiarum. — Master  of  cere- 
monies ;  an  umpire  in  matters  of  taste 

Arcana  imperii. — State  secrets. 

Arcanum. — A  secret. 

Argumcntum  ad crumetiam. — An  argu- 
ment to  the  purse. 

Argumentum  ad  fidcm. — An  appeal  to 
faith. 

Argumcntum  ad  homincm. — An  argu- 
ment to  the  person. 

Argumentu7n  ad  ignorant  iam. — An 
argument  founded  on  an  adversary's 
ignorance  of  facts. 

Argumcntum  ad  judicium . — An  appeal 
to  the  common  sense  of  mankind. 

Argumentum  ad populum. — An  appeal 
to  the  people. 

Argumcntum  ad  Z'erccundiam. — An  ar- 
gument to  modesty. 

Argumentum  baculinum. — Club  law. 

Arioso. — Light,  airy. 

Armiger. — One  bearing  arms;  an  es- 
quire. 

Arpeggio. — The  notes  of  a  chord  played 
in  rapid  succession,  and  not  simulta- 
neously.    (Music.) 

Arriere-pensee. — Mental  reservation. 

Ars  est  celare  artem. — True  art  is  to 
conceal  art. 

Assumpsit. — It  is  assumed  or  taken  for 
granted. 

Astra  castra,  Nunien  lumen. — The  stars 
my  camp,  the  Deity  my  light. 

At  spes  non  fracta. — But  hope  is  not 
broken. 

Aufiit. — Well  instructed  ;  master  of  it. 

Aufond. — To  the  bottom,  or  main  point. 

Aupiedde  la  /f«r<?.— Literally. 

Aupis  alter.— A\.  the  worst. 

Au  revoir. — Farewell. 

Audi  alteram  partem.— \ie.Ar  the  other 
side 

Aura  popular  is. —The  gale  of  popular 
favour. 

Auri  sacra  fames. — The  accursed  thirst 
for  gold. 

Auter  droit. — Another's  right. 

Auter  foit. — Another  time. 

Auter  vie. — Another's  life. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


359 


Aut  vincere  aut  mori. — Victory  or  death. 
Auto-da-fe,  Auto-de-fe . — An  act  of  faith  ; 

burning  of  heretics. 
Au-xiliuin  ab  alto. — Help  from  on  high. 
Avant-cotireur. — A  forerunner. 
Ave,  Maria. — Hail,  Mary. 

Badinage. — Light  or  playful  discourse. 

Bagatelle. — A  trifle. 

Bas  bleu. — A  blue-stocking;  a  literary 
woman. 

Basso-continuo . — Thorough  bass. 

Basso-relievo. — Figures  in  low  relief. 

Bateau. — A  long  light  boat. 

Beau-ideal. — A  model  of  ideal  perfection. 

Beau  ntonde. — The  fashionable  world. 

Bel  esprit. — A  brilliant  mind. 

Bella-donna. — The  deadly  nightshade  ; 
fair  lady. 

Belles-lettres.  — Polite  literature. 

Belliini  interneciiiuin. — A  war  of  exter- 
mination. 

Belliaii  lethale. — A  deadly  war. 

Bene  J>lacito. — At  pleasure.     {Music.) 

Benigno  mimine.- — By  the  favour  of 
Providence. 

Ben  trovato. — Well  found;  an  ingenious 
solution. 

Billet-doux. — A  love-letter. 

Bis  dat  qui  citb  dat. — He  gives  twice 
who  gives  promptly. 

Bis  peccare  in  bello  non  licet. — To  blun- 
der twice  is  not  allowed  in  war. 

Bis  vincit,  qui  se  vincit  in  victoria. — 
He  conquers  a  second  time,  who  con- 
trols himself  in  victory. 

Bizarre. — Odd ;   fantastic. 

Blase. — Surfeited. 

Bon  gre  mal gre. — Willing  or  unwilling 

Bon  jour. — Good-day  ;  good-morning. 

Bon  mot. —Pi.  witty  saying;  a  jest;  a 
quibble. 

Bon  soir. — Good-evening. 

Bon  ton. — High  fashion;  first-class  so- 
ciety. 

Bon  vivant. — A  high  liver. 

Bonafide. — In  good  faith. 

Bon-bon. — A  sweetmeat ;  confectionery. 

Bonhomie. — Good-natured  simplicity. 

Bonis  nocet  quisguis pepercerit  vialis. — 
He  hurts  the  good  who  spares  the  bad. 

Bonne  bouche. — A  delicious  morsel. 

Bonus. — An  extra  payment  for  a  service 
rendered  or  a  thing  received. 


Boreas. — The  north  wind. 

Boudoir. — A  small  private  apartment. 

Bourgeois. — A  citizen  of  the  trading 
class;  a  printing  type. 

Bourgeoisie . — The  body  of  citizens. 

Bravura. — A  song  of  difficult  execution. 

Brevet  e. — Patented. 

Brutuvi  /ulmeti. — A  harmless  thunder- 
bolt ;  unreasoning  bluster. 

Burletta. — A  musical  farce. 

Cachet. — A  seal. 

Cacoethes. — A  bad  habit  or  custom. 

Cacoethes  carpendi. — A  rage  for  finding 

fault. 
Cacoethes  loquendi. — An  itch  for  speak- 
ing 
Cacoethes    scribendi. — A     passion     for 

writing. 
Cadenza. — The  fall  or  modulation  of  the 

voice,  in  music. 
Cieca  est  invidia. — Envy  is  blind. 
Cietera  desunt. — The  remainder  is  want- 
ing. 
Cteteris  paribus. — Other    things   being 

equal. 
Calibre. — Capacity  or  compass  ;  mental 

power;  a  term  in  gunnery. 
Camera  obscura. — A  dark  chamber  used 

by  artists. 
Campus  Martius. — The  field  of  Mars  ; 

a  place  of  military  exercise. 
Canaille. — The  rabble. 
Candida  Pax. — White-robed  Peace. 
Cantata. — A  poem  set  to  music. 
Cantate  Domino. — Sing  to  the  Lord. 
Cap-a-pie. — From  head  to  foot. 
Capias  ad  satis/aciendujn. — ^You    may 

take  to  satisfy. 
Capriccio. — A  fanciful  irregular  kind  of 

musical  composition. 
Capriole. — A   leap   without   advancing; 

capers. 
Caput     mortuum. — Dead    head  ;       the 

worthless  remains. 
Caret. — Is  wanting  or  omitted. 
Caret  initio  etjine. — It  wants  beginning 

and  end. 
Carpe  diem. — Enjoy  the  present  day. 
Carte  blanche. — Unconditional  terms. 
Casus  belli. — An  occasion  for  war. 
Casus  fcederis. — A  case  of  conspiracy  ; 

the  end  of  the  league. 
Catalogue    raisonne. — A    catalogue    of 


31 


360 


FOREIGX  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


books  arranged  according  to  their  sub- 
jects. 
Cause  celebre. — A  remarkable  trial  in  a 

court  of  justice. 
Caveat  actor. — Let  the  doer  beware. 
Caveat  emptor. — Let  the  purchaser  take 

heed  or  beware. 
Cavendo  tutus. — Safe  through  caution. 
Ce  n'est  que  le  premier  pas  qui  couie. — 

It  is  only  the  first  step  which  is  difficult. 
Cedant  anna  togce. — Let  militarj'  power 

yield  to  the  civil. 
Cede  Deo. — Submit  to  Providence. 
Certiorari. — To  be  made  more  certain. 
Cessio  bonorum. — Yielding  up  of  goods. 
C'est  une  autre  chose. — That  is  quite  a 

different  thing. 
Chacitn  a  son  goUt. — Every  one  to  his 

taste. 
Chanson. — A  song. 
Chansonnette . — A  little  song. 
Chapeau. — A  hat. 
Chapelle  ardente. — The  place  where  a 

dead  person  lies  in  state. 
Chaperon. — An  attendant  on  a  lady,  as 

a  guide  and  protector. 
Charge  d'affaires. — An  ambassador  of 

second  rank. 
Chateau. — A  castle ;  a  coimtry  mansion. 
Chef-d'oeuvre. — A  masterpiece. 
Chevalier  d'industrie. — A  knight  of  in- 
dustry;    one  who  lives  by  persevering 

fraud. 
Chi  tace  confessa. — Silence  is  confession. 
Chiaro-oscuro   or    Chiaroscuro. — Light 

and  shadow  in  painting. 
Chose  qui  plait  est  a  demi  vendue. — A 

thing  which  pleases  is  already  half  sold. 
Cicerone. — A  guide  or  conductor. 
Cicisbeo. — A  dangler  after  a  lady. 
Ci-devant . — Formerly ;  former. 
Circa. — About. 
Citb  maturuin  cith  puiridum. — Soon 

ripe,  soon  rotten. 
Clarior  e  tenebris. — More  bright   from 

obscurity. 
Clique. — A  party ;  a  gang. 
Cognomen. — A  surname 
Comme  ilfaut. — As  it  should  be. 
Commune  bonutn. — A  common  good. 
Communia  propria  dicere. — To  express 

common  things  with  propriety. 
Communibus  annis. — One     year     with 

another. 


Compos  mentis. — Of  sound  mind. 

Con  amore. — With  love  or  hearty  in- 
clination. 

Concio  ad  clerum. — A  discourse  to  the 
clergy. 

Cotige  d'elire. — Permission  to  elect. 

Co7i?ioisseur.^A  skilful  judge. 

Consensus  /acet  legem. — Consent  makes 
the  law. 

Contour. — The  outline  of  a  figure. 

Contra. — Against. 

Contra  bonos  mores. — Against  good 
manners. 

Contretemps. — A  mischance;  disap- 
pointment. 

Coram  nobis .—Hefore  us. 

Coram  non  jndice. — Before  one  who  is 
not  the  proper  judge. 

Cornucopia. — The  horn  of  plenty. 

Corpus  delicti. — The  whole  nature  of  the 
offence. 

Corrigenda. — Corrections  to  be  made. 

Coryphteus. — A  leader,  or  chief 

Cotillon. — A  lively  dance. 

Couleur  de  rose. — Rose-colour;  an  as- 
pect of  beauty  and  attractiveness. 

Coup  de  grace.— The  finishing  stroke. 

Coup  de  main. — A  bold  and  rapid  enter- 
prise. 

Coup  de  pied. — A  kick. 

Coup  de  soleil. — A  stroke  of  the  sun. 

Coup  d'etat. — A  master-stroke  of  state 
policy. 

Coup  cToeil. — Rapid  view  or  glance. 

Coute  qu'il  coiite. — Cost  what  it  may. 

Credat  yudceus. — A  Jew  may  believe  it. 

Crescit  amor  nummi  quantum  ipsa 
pecunia  crescit. — The  love  of  money 
increases  as  rapidly  as  the  money  itself 
increases. 

Crescit  eundo. — It  increases  by  going. 

Crescite  et  multiplicamini. — Increase 
and  multiply. 

Crimen  falsi. — Falsehood  ;  perjury. 

Crux  criticorum. — The  cross  or  puzzle 
of  critics. 

Cui  bono  ? — To  whose  good  ? 

Cui  malo  ? — To  whose  harm  ? 

Cul  de  sac. — The  bottom  of  the  bag; 
a  difficulty ;  a  street  or  lane  that  has 
no  outlet. 

Cum grano  sails. — With  a  grain  of  salt; 
with  some  allowance. 

Cum  multis  aliis. — With  many  others. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


361 


Cum  privilcgio.—V^^xh.  privilege. 
Curia  advisarivult. — The  court  wishes 

to  be  advised. 
Curiosa  felicitas. — A  felicitous  tact. 
Currente  calaiito. — With  a  running  pen ; 

written  ofF-hand. 
Custos  rotulorum. — Keeper  of  the  rolls. 

Da  capo. — Over  again. 

Dainnant  gicod  non  intelligiint. — They 
condemn  what  they  do  not  compre- 
hend. 

Data. — Things  granted,  (sing,  datum.) 

De  bonis  tion. — Of  the  goods  not  yet  ad- 
ministered on. 

De  die  in  diem. — From  day  to  day. 

De  facto. — In  fact ;  in  reality. 

De  gttstihus  non  est  disputandum. — 
There  is  no  disputing  about  tastes. 

Dejure. — By  law  or  right. 

De  jnoriuis  nil  nisi  ionum. — Say  no- 
thing but  what  is  good  of  the  dead. 

De  novo. — Anew. 

De  pro/undis. — Out  of  the  depths. 

De  trap. — Out  of  place  ;  not  wanted. 

Debitojustitite. — By  debt  of  justice. 

Debut. — Beginning  of  an  enterprise; 
first  appearance. 

Deceptio  visits. — An  illusion  of  the  sight. 

Dedimus  potestatem. — We  have  given 
power. 

Deficit. — A  want  of  deficiency. 

Dei  gratia. — By  the  grace  of  God. 

Dejeitner  a  la  fourchette. — A  breakfast 
or  luncheon  with  meats. 

Dele. — Blot  out  or  erase. 

Delenda  est  Carthago . — Carthage  must 
be  blotted  out. 

Delta  (the  Greek  letter  ^,)  a  triangular 
tract  of  land  toward  the  mouth  of  a 
river. 

Denouement. — An  unravelling  or  wind- 
ing up. 

Deo  adjuvante,  non  timendum. — God 
helping,  nothing  need  be  feared. 

Deofavente. — With  God's  favour. 

Deo gratias. — Thanks  to  God. 

Deojuziante. — With  God's  help. 

Deo  non  /brtuna. — From  God,  not  for- 
tune. 

Deo  z'olente,  or  D.  V. — God  willing. 

Depot. — A  store ;  the  recruiting  reserve 
of  regiments. 

Dernier  ressort. — The  last  resort. 


Desideratum. — Something  desired  or 
wanted. 

Desunt  ceetera. — The  other  things  are 
wanting. 

Detinet. — He  detains ;  he  keeps. 

Detour. — A  circuitous  march. 

Detur  digniori. — Let  it  be  given  to  the 
more  worthy. 

Deus  ex  machina. — A  god  from  the 
clouds;  unexpected  aid  in  an  emer- 
gency. 

Devastavit. — He  wasted. 

Devoir. — Duty. 

Dexter. — The  right  hand. 

Dictum.— K  positive  assertion  (pi.  dicta.) 

Dictum  de  dicto. — Report  upon  hearsay. 

Dies faustus . — A  lucky  day. 

Dies  irce. — Day  of  wrath. 

Dies  non. — ^A  day  on  which  judges  do 
not  sit. 

Dieu  et  nion  droit. — God  and  my  right. 

Dieu  vous garde. — God  protect  you. 

Dii  majorum  gentium. — The  gods  of  the 
superior  class;  the  twelve  superior 
gods. 

Dii penates. — Household  gods. 

Dilettanti. — Persons  who  devote  them- 
selves to  science  merely  for  amusement 
or  rela.xation.     (S'ng.  Dilettante.') 

Diluvium. — A  deposit  of  superficial 
loam,  sand,  &c.  caused  by  a  deluge. 

Dirigo. — I  direct  or  guide. 

Disjecta  membra. — Scattered  parts, 
limbs,  or  writings. 

Distrait. — Absent  in  thought ;  absent- 
minded. 

Distringas . — A  writ  for  distraining. 

Divide  et  impera. — Divide  and  govern. 

Doce  ut  discas. — Teach,  that  you  may 
learn. 

Docendo  dicimus. — We  learn  by  teach- 
ing. 

Dolce. — Soft  and  agreeable.     (Music.) 

Dolce  far  niente. — Sweet  idleness. 

Doli  incapax. — Incapable  of  mischief. 

Dolorosa. — Soft  and  pathetic.     (Music.) 

Domicile  (L.  domicilium .) — An  abode. 

Domine  dirige  nos. — O  Lord,  direct  us. 

Dotninus  vobiscum. — The  Lord  be  with 
you. 

Double  entendre.  — Double  meaning  (cor- 
rectly written  double  entente.) 

Douceur. — A  present  or  bribe ;  sweet- 
ness. 


362 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AXD  PHRASES. 


Draco. — A  dragon  ;  a  constellation. 
Dramatis  personce. — The  characters  in 

a  play. 
Duet  (Ital.  duetto.) — A  song  for  two  per- 
formers. 
Dulce  est  desipere  in  loco.—\\.  is  pleasant 

to  jest,  or  revel,  at  the  proper  time. 
Dutce  et  decorum  est  pro  pat  rid  iiiori. — 

It  is  sweet  and  pleasant  to  die  for  one's 

country. 
Dulia. — An  inferior  kind  of  worship. 
Dum  spiro,  spero. — Whilst  I  breathe,  I 

hope. 
Dum    viviinus,    vivainus. — While     we 

live,  let  us  live. 
Duo. — Two;  a  two-part  song. 
Duodecimo. — A     book     having     twelve 

leaves  to  a  sheet. 
Durante  placito,  or  durante  beneplaci- 

to. — During  pleasure. 
Durante  vita. — During  life. 
Dux  foeniina  facti. — A  woman  was  the 

leader  to  the  deed. 

E  plurilnts  unum. — One  out  of  many  ; 
one  composed  of  many  :  the  motto  of 
the  United  States. 

Eazi  de  rvV.— Brandy  ;  water  of  life. 

Ecce  homo. — Behold  the  man. 

Ecce  signum. — Behold  the  sign. 

Eclaircissement. — The  clearing-up  of  an 
aflfair. 

Eclat. — Splendour;  applause. 

Editio princeps. — The  first  edition. 

Ekeu  ! — Ah,  alas  ! 

Elan. — Buoyancy;  dash. 

Elegit. — He  hath  elected  ;  a  writ  of  exe- 
cution 

Eleve. — .\  pupil. 

Elite. — The  best  part. 

Embonpoint. — Roundness  ;  good  condi- 
tion. 

Emeritus. — One  retired  from  active  offi- 
rial  duties. 

Emeute. — Insurrection  ;  uproar. 

Empressement. — Eagerness ;  ardour. 

En  ami. — As  a  friend. 

En  aTant  ! — Forward  ! 

En/lute. — Carrying  guns  on  the  upper 
deck  only. 

En  grande  tenue. — In  full  dress. 

En  masse. — In  a  mass;  in  a  body. 

En  passant. — By  the  way  ;  in  passing. 

En  rapport. — In  communication. 


En  revanche. — In  return. 

En  route. — On  the  way. 

Enceinte. — Pregnant. 

Enfatis  perdus. — Lost  children  ;  the  for- 
lorn hope. 

Ennui. — Weariness  ;  lassitude. 

Ense  petit  placidam  sub  libertate  qui- 
etem. — By  his  sword  he  seeks  the  calm 
repose  of  liberty. 

Ensemble. — The  whole  taken  together. 

Entente  cordiale. — The  cordial  under- 
standing between  two  countries. 

Entre  nous. — Between  ourselves. 

Entree. — Entrance. 

Entremets. — Small  and  dainty  dishes  set 
between  the  principal  ones  at  table. 

Eo  nomine. — By  that  name. 

Equilibrium. — Equality  of  weight;  even 
balance. 

Ergo. — Therefore. 

Eripuit  ccelo  fztlmen,  sceptrumque  ty- 
ritnnis.^Ue  snatched  the  thunderbolt 
from  heaven,  and  the  sceptre  from 
tyrants. 

Erratum. — A  mistake  or  error  (pi. 
errata.) 

Escrcnu. — A  deed  or  writing  left  with  an- 
other, to  be  delivered  on  the  perform- 
ance of  something  specified. 

Espieglerie. — Waggish  tricks. 

Esprit  de  corps. — The  animating  spirit 
of  a  collective  body. 

Est  modus  in  rebus. — There  is  a  medium 
in  all  things. 

Estoppel. — A  stop,  a  preventive  plea. 

Esto perpetua. — May  it  last  forever. 

Et  catera. — And  the  rest. 

Eureka. — I  have  found  it. 

Ex. — Out  of;  late  (as,  ex-consul.) 

Ex  animo. — Heartily. 

Ex  cathedra. — From  the  chair;  with 
high  authority. 

Ex  concesso. — From  what  lias  been 
granted. 

Ex  curia. — Out  of  court. 

Exfumo  dare  lucem. — Out  of  smoke  to 
bring  light. 

Ex  nihilo  nihil  fit. — Nothing  can  come 
of  nothing. 

Ex  officio. — By  virtue  of  his  office. 

Ex  parte. — On  one  side  only  (before  a 
noun,  e.vparte.) 

Ex  pede  Herculem. — We  recognize  a 
Hercules  from  the  size  of  the  foot : 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


2>^Z 


that  is,  we  judge  of  the  whole  from  the 
specimen. 

Ex  jiost facto. — After  the  deed  is  done. 

Ex  tempore. — Without  premeditation. 

Ex  uno  disce  ovines. — From  one  learn 
all ;  from  one  judge  of  the  whole. 

Excelsior.— yioxc  elevated  ;  onward. 

Excerpta. — Extracts. 

Exempli  gratia. — As  for  example. 

Exeunt  oinnes. — All  retire. 

Experirnentum  crucis. — A  decisive  ex- 
periment. 

Experto  credo. — Believe  one  who  has 
experience. 

Expose. — An  exposition  ;  recital. 

Faber  sua  fortunce. — The  architect  of 

his  own  fortune. 
Facile  primus,  facile  princcps. — By  far 

the  first  or  chiefest. 
Facilis  est  descensus. — Descent  is  easy. 
Fac   simile. — Make   it  like ;    hence,  an 

exact  copy. 
Fac  totum. — Do  all ;  a  man  of  all  work. 
Facta  est  lux. — There  was  light. 
Fas  est  ab  haste  doceri. — It  is  allowable 

to  learn  even  from  an  enemy. 
Fata  obstant. — The  fates  oppose  it. 
Fauteuil. — An  easy-chair. 
Faux  pas.— A  false  step. 
Felo  de  se. — A  self-murderer. 
Feme  couverte. — A  married  woman. 
Feme  sole. — A  woman  unmarried. 
Festina  Icnte. — Hasten  slowly  ;  advance 

steadily  rather  than  hurriedly. 
Fete.— A  feast  or  celebration. 
Fete  champetre. — A  rural  feast. 
Feu  de  Joie. — A  bonfire  ;  a  discharge  of 

musketry  on  days  of  rejoicing. 
Feuilleton. — A  small  leaf;   a  supplement 

to  a  newspaper ;  a  pamphlet. 
Fiat. — Let  it  be  done. 
Fiat  j'ustitia,  ruat  ccelum. — Let  justice 

be  done,  though   the   heavens   should 

fall. 
Fiat  lux. — Let  there  be  light. 
Fide,  nan  armis. — By  faith ,  not  by  arms. 
Fide,  sedcuivide. — Trust,  but  see  whom. 
Fides  et  j'tistitia.- — Fidelity  and  justice. 
Fidus  Achates. — Faithful  Achates  (that 

is,  a  true  friend.) 
Fieri  facias. — Cause  it  to  be  done  (a  kind 

of  writ.) 
Filius  nullius. — A  son  of  nobody. 

31 


Fille-de-chambre. — A  chambermaid. 

Finale. — To  close  or  end. 

Fineni  respice. — Look  to  the  end. 

Finis. — The  end. 

Finis  coronat  opus. — The  end  crowns 

the  work. 
Flagrante bello. — While  the  war  is  raging. 
Flagrante  delicto. — In  the  commission 

of  the  crime. 
Flaneur. — A  lounger. 
Flecti,  non  frangi. — To  be  bent,  not  to 

be  broken. 
Fleur-de-lis. — The    flower    of   the    lily 

{"^X.  fleurs-de-lis.) 
Forte. — In  music,  a  direction  to  sing  or 

play  with  force  or  spirit. 
Fortes  fortuna  juvat. — Fortune  assists 

the  brave. 
Fortissimo. — Very  loud. 
Fortiter  in  re. — Resolute  in  deed. 
Fracas. — Bustle ;  a  slight  quarrel ;  more 

ado  about  the  thing  than  it  is  worth. 
Fruges  consumere  nati. — Born  merely 

to  consume  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
Fugam  fecit. — He  has  taken  to  flight. 
Fuit  Ilium. — Troy  has  been. 
Functus  officio. — Out  of  office 
Furore. — Excitement. 

Gaiete  de  coeur. — Gayety  of  heart. 

Gallice. — In  French. 

Gardez  bien. — Take  good  care. 

Gardez  lafoi. — Keep  the  faith. 

Gaucher  ie. — Awkwardness. 

Gaudeamus  igitur. — So  let  us  be  joyful. 

Gendarme. — A  military  policeman. 

Gendarmerie. — The  body  of  the  ge7i- 
darmes. 

Genius  loci. — The  genius  of  the  place. 

Genus  irritabile  vatum. — Irritable  tribe 
of  poets. 

Gloria  in  excelsis. — Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest. 

Gratis. — Free  of  cost. 

Gratis  dictum. — Mere  assertion. 

Gravamen. — The  thing  complained  of. 

Grisette. — Dressed  in  gray  (a  term  ap- 
plied to  French  shop-girls,  &c.) 

Gusto. — Great  relish. 

Habeas  corpus. — You  are  to  have  the 
body ;  a  writ  of  right,  by  virtue  of 
which  every  citizen  can,  when  im- 
prisoned, demand  to  be  put  on  his  trial. 


564 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Habitue. — A  frequenter. 

HiPC  oliin  Dieminisse  juvabit . — It  will  be 
pleasant  hereafter  to  remember  these 
things. 

Haricot. — A  kind  of  ragout ;  a  kidney- 
bean. 

Haud  passibits  tegieis. — Not  with  equal 
steps.  [Wrongly  quoted  :  seeiVow,  &c.] 

Haut gout. — High  flavour. 

Hauteur. — Haughtiness. 

Helluo  librorum. — A  book-worm. 

Hie  ct  ubique. — Here,  there,  and  every- 
where. 

Hie  jacet. — Here  lies. 

Hinc  illoE  lacryiHce. — Hence  proceed 
these  tears. 

Hoe  age. — Do  this  ;  attend  to  what  you 
are  doing. 

Homme  d'esj>rit. — A  man  of  talent,  or 
of  wit. 

Homo  multarum  literaruJit. — A  man  of 
much  learning. 

Honi  soit  qui  vial  y  pense. — Evil  be  to 
him  that  evil  thinks. 

Honores  tnutant  mores. — Honours 
change  men's  manners. 

Hora/ugit. — The  hour  or  time  flies. 

Horreseo  referens. — I  shudder  to  re- 
late. 

Hors  lie  eombat.—T)\s.ab\(td  for  fighting ; 
vanquished. 

Hortiis  siecKS. — A  collection  of  dried 
plants. 

Hostis  humani  generis. — An  enemy  of 
the  human  race. 

Hotel  de  ville. — A  town-hall. 

Hotel-Dieu.—'Vhc  chief  hospital  in 
French  cities. 

Humanum  est  errare. — It  is  human  to 
err. 

Htine  tu  caveto. — Beware  of  him. 

Ibidem,  contracted  ibid  or  id. — In   the 

same  place. 
Ich  dien. — I  serve. 
Id  est. — That  is ;  abridged  /.  e. 
Id  genus  omne. — All  of  that  sort. 
Idem,  contracted  id. — The  same.     {Id. 

ib.,    the    same    autlior ;    in    the  same 

place.) 
Jdoncus  hotno. — A  fit  man. 
Ignoramus . — We  are  ignorant. 
Ignorantia   legis  neminem   exeusat. — 

Ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one. 


II  a  le  diable  au  corps. — The  devil  is  in 
him. 

Imitatores,  servum  pecus. — Imitators, 
a  servile  herd. 

Imperium  i}i  imperio. — One  govern- 
ment existing  within  another. 

Impransus . — One  who  has  not  dined. 

Imprimatur. — Let  it  be  printed. 

Imprimis. — In  the  first  place. 

Impromptu. — A  prompt  remark  without 
study. 

In  articulo  mortis. — At  the  point  of 
death. 

In  capite. — In  the  head. 

In  ecelo  quies. — There  is  rest  in  heaven. 

In  eommendam. — In  trust. 

In  conspcctu  fori. — In  the  eye  of  the 
law  ;  in  the  sight  of  the  court. 

In  curia. — In  t!ie  court. 

In  duplo. — Twice  as  much. 

In  equilibria. — Equally  balanced. 

In  esse. — In  being. 

In  extenso. — At  full  length. 

hi  extremis. — At  the  point  of  death. 

In  forma  pauperis. — As  a  pauper. 

In  foro  eonscientice. — Before  the  tribu- 
nal of  conscience. 

In  hoe  signo  z'inees. — In  this  sign  thou 
shalt  conquer. 

In  limine. — At  the  threshold. 

In  loco. — In  the  place. 

In  medias  res. — Into  the  midst  of  things. 

In  memoriam. — To  the  memory  of. 

In  perpetuum. — Forever. 

In  petto. — In  reserve;  in  one's  breast. 

In  posse. — In  possible  existence. 

In  posterum. — For  the  time  to  come. 

In  propria  persona. — In  his  own  per- 
son. 

In puris  naturalibus. — Quite  naked. 

In  re. — In  the  matter  of 

In  situ. — In  its  original  situation. 

In  statu  quo. — In  the  former  state. 

In  te,  Domine,  speravi. — In  thee.  Lord, 
have  I  put  my  trust. 

In  terrorcm .—"By  way  of  warning. 

In  totidcm  verbis.— \n  so  many  words. 

In  toto. — Altogether. 

In  transitu.— On  the  passage. 

In  utrumque  paratus. — Prepared  for 
either  event. 

In  iHicuo. — In  empty  space,  or  in  a 
vacuum. 

In  vino  Veritas. — There  is  truth  in  wine. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AXD  PHRASES. 


365 


Incognito. — Disguised ;  unknown. 

Index  expurgatorius. — A  list  of  pro- 
hibited books. 

Infra  dignitatem. — Beneath  one's  dig- 
nity. 

Innuendo. — Covert  meaning ;  indirect 
hint. 

Inops  consilii. — Without  counsel. 

Insouciance. — Carelessness;  indifference. 

Instar  omnium. — One  will  suffice  for  all ; 
an  example  to  others. 

Inter  alia. — Among  other  things. 

Inter  anna  leges  silent. — In  the  midst 
of  arms  the  laws  are  silent. 

Inter  fios. — Between  ourselves. 

Inter  se. — Among  themselves. 

I^se  dixit. — He  himself  said  it;  dog- 
matic assertion. 

Ipsissima  verba. — The  very  words. 

Ipso/acto. — By  the  fact  itself;  actually. 

Ipso  jure. — By  the  law  itself. 

Ira  furor  brevis  est. — Anger  is  brief 
madness. 

Ita  lex  scripta  est. — Thus  the  law  is 
written. 

Item. — Also. 

yacta  est  alea. — The  die  is  cast. 

yatnais  arriire. — Xever  behind. 

ye  ne  sais  guoi. — I  know  not  what. 

yet  d'eau. — A  jet  of  water. 

yeu  de  mots. — Play  upon  words  ;  a  pun. 

yeu  d' esprit. — A  witticism. 

yudicium  Dei.— The  judgment  of  God. 

yuniores  ad  labores. — Young  men  for 

labours. 
yure  divino. — By  divine  law. 
yure  gentium. — By  the  law  of  nations. 
yure  humano. — By  human  law. 
yus  civile. — Civil  law. 
yus  gladii. — Right  of  the  sword. 
yuste  milieu. — The  golden  mean  ;  a  just 

medium. 
yiistitiiE  soror  fides. — Faith  is  the  sister 

of  justice. 

La  critique  est  aisee,  et  Part  est  difficile. 
— Criticism  is  easy,  but  art  is  diffi- 
cult. 

Labor  ipse  voluptas. — Labour  itself  is 
pleasure. 

Labor  omnia  vincit. — Labour  conquers 
all  things. 

Laissez-nousfaire. — Let  us  alone. 


Lapsus  calami. — A  slip  of  the  pen  ;  an 

error  in  writing. 
Lapsus  linguce. — A  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lapsus  7>temorice. — A  slip  of  memorj-. 
Lares  et penates. — Household  gods. 
L' argent. — Money,  or  silver. 
Laudator  temporis  acti. — A  praiser  of 

time  past. 
Laus  Deo. — Praise  to  God. 
Laus  propria  sordei. — Praise  of  one's 

own  self  defiles. 
Le  beau  monde. — The  fashionable  world. 
Le  ban  temps  viendra. — The  good  time 

will  come. 
Le  gra  nd  ceuvre. — The  great  work  ;  the 

philosopher's  stone. 
Le  pas. — Precedence  in  place  or  rank. 
Le  savoirfaire. — The  knowledge   how- 
to  act ;  address. 
Le  tout  ensemble. — All  together. 
Lege. — Read. 

Leges  legum. — The  law  of  laws. 
Lese  majeste. — High  treason. 
L'etoile  du  nord. — The  north  star. 
Lettre  de  cachet. — A  sealed   letter;    a 

royal  warrant. 
Levari  facias. — That  you   cause  to  be 

levied;  a  writ  of  execution. 
Levee. — A  morning  visit  or  reception. 
Lex  loci. — The  law  of  the  place. 
Lex  magna   est,   et  prtevalebit. — The 

law  is  great,  and  will  prevail. 
Lex    non    scripta. — The   unwritten    or 

common  law. 
Lex  scripta. — Statute  law. 
Lex  talionis. — The  law  of  retaliation. 
Lex  term,  lex patrite. — The  law  of  the 

land. 
L'homme  propose,   et   Dieu   dispose. — 

Man  proposes,  and  God  disposes. 
Libretto. — A  little  book  or  pamphlet. 
Liceittia  vatutn. — A  poetical  license. 
Lingua  Franca. — The  mixed  language 

spoken  by  Europeans  in  the  East. 
Liqueur. — A  cordial. 
Lis  litem  general. — Strife  begets  strife. 
Lis  subjudice. — A  case  not  yet  decided. 
Lite  pendente. — During  the  trial. 
Litera  scripta  manet. — The  written  let- 
ter remains. 
Literati. — Men  of  letters  or  learning. 
Loco  citato. — In  the  place  cited. 
Loco  parentis. — In    the    place    of    the 

parent. 


366 


FOREIGX  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Locum  tenens. — One  who  holds  a  place 
for  another. 

Locus  sigitli{\.. '?>.). — The  place  of  the 
seal. 

Longo  intervallo. — At  a  great  distance. 

Ludere  ctiiii  Siicris. — To  trifle  with  sa- 
cred things. 

Lusus  naturce. — A  sport  or  freak  of  na- 
ture. 

Made  virtute. — Proceed  in  virtue. 

Mademoiselle. — A  young  unmarried  lady. 

Magna  Charta. — The  great  charter  of 
England. 

Magna  civitas,  magna  solitudo. — A 
great  city  is  a  great  desert. 

Magna  est  Veritas,  et  prcevalebit. — The 
truth  is  great,  and  will  prevail. 

Magni  nominis  umbra. — The  shadow 
of  a  great  name. 

Magnum  opus. — A  great  work. 

Magnus  Apollo. — Great  Apollo ;  one  of 
high  authority. 

Maison  de  ville. — The  town-house. 

Ma'itre  d'/iotel. — An  hotel-keeper;  a 
house-steward. 

Majordomo  (Ital.  maiordomo.) — One 
who  has  the  management  of  a  house- 
hold. 

Malajide. — In  bad  faith  ;  treacherously. 

Mai  a  propos. — Out  of  time  ;  unbecom- 
ing. 

Malaria. — Noxious  exhalations. 

Malgre. — In  spite  of. 

Malum  in  se. — Bad  in  itself. 

Mandamus. — We  command  :  a  peremp- 
tory writ  to  compel  obedience. 

Manege. — A  riding-school. 

Mania  a  potu. — Madness  caused  by 
drunkenness. 

Manuforti. — With  a  strong  hand. 

Mardi  gras. — Sh  rove-Tuesday. 

Mare  clausuvt. — .\  closed  sea  ;  a  bay. 

Mater/amilias. — The  mother  of  a  family. 

Materia  jnedica. — Substances  used  in 
the  healing  art. 

Matinee. — A  morning  party. 

Mauvais  goiit. — Bad  taste. 

Mauvais  sujet. — A  worthless  fellow. 

Mauvaise  honte. — F:'!se  modesty ;  bash- 
fulness. 

Maximutn. — The  greatest. 

Majfimus  in  miniviis. — Very  great  in 
trifling  things. 


Me  j'udice. — I  being  judge;  in  my  own 
opinion. 

Medio  tutissimus  il/is. — A  medium  course 
will  be  safest. 

Meditationefugce. — In  contemplation  of 
flight. 

Memento  mori. — Remember  death. 

Memorabilia. — Things  to  be  remem- 
bered. 

MejKoriter. — By  rote. 

Menage. — Household. 

Mens  Sana  in  corpore  sano. — A  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body. 

Mens  sibi  conscia  recti. — A  mind  con- 
scious of  rectitude. 

Mensa  et  thoro. — From  bed  and  board. 

Merum  sal. — Pure  salt;  genuine  Attic 
wit. 

Meum  et  tutim. — Mine  and  thine. 

Minimum. — The  least. 

Minutice. — Minute  concerns;  trifles. 

Mirabile  dictu. — Wonderful  to  be  told. 

Mirabilia. — Wonders. 

Mittimus. — We  send  :  a  warrant  for  the 
commitment  of  an  offender. 

Modus  operandi. — Manner  of  operation. 

IMontani  semper  liberi. — Mountaineers 
are  always  freemen. 

Morceau. — A  morsel. 

More  suo. — In  his  own  way. 

Mot  du  guet. — A  watchword. 

Multum  in  parvo. — Much  in  a  small 
space. 

Mutanda. — Things  to  be  altered. 

Mutatis  mutandis. — The  necessary 
changes  being  made. 

Mutato  nomine. — The  name  being 
clianged. 

Naivete. — Ingenuousness ;  simplicity. 

Ne  cede  vialis. — Yield  not  to  misfortune. 

Ne  exeat. — Let  him  not  depart. 

Ne  plus  ultra. — Nothing  further  ;  the 
uttermost  point. 

Ne  guid  nimis. — Not  too  much  of  any 
thing;  do  nothing  to  excess. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  crcpidam. — Let  not  the 
shoemaker  go  beyond  his  last. 

Ne  tentes,  aut  /oy^c^.— Attempt  not,  or 
accomplish  thoroughly. 

Nee  pluribus  impar. — Not  an  unequal 
match  for  numbers. 

Nee  scire  fas  est  omnia. — It  is  not  per- 
mitted to  know  all  tilings. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


367 


Necessitatis  non  habet  legem. — Neces- 
sity has  no  law. 

Nee. — Born. 

Nefasti  dies. — Days  upon  which  no 
pubUc  business  was  transacted ;  also, 
unlucky  days. 

Netiiine  contradicente. — No  one  contra- 
dicting. 

Nemine  dissentiente. — Without  opposi- 
tion or  dissent. 

Nemo  me  impzme  lacessit. — No  one 
wounds  me  with  impunity. 

Nemo  mortalium  omnibus  horis  sapit. — 
No  one  is  wise  at  all  times. 

Nemo  repente  fiiit  tinpissimus. — No 
man  ever  became  a  villain  at  once. 

Nemo  solus  sapit. — No  one  is  wise  alone. 

Niaiserie. — Silliness. 

Nihil  debet. — He  owes  nothing  ;  a  plea 
denying  a  debt. 

Nihil  quod  tetigit,  non  ornavit. — What- 
ever he  touched  he  embellished. 

Nil  admirari. — To  wonder  at  nothing. 

Nil  desperandum. — Never  despair. 

Nimiiim  ne  crede  colori. — Trust  not  too 
much  to  looks. 

N importe. — It  matters  not. 

Nisi  Dominus  frustra. — Unless  the 
Lord  be  with  us,  all  eflforts  are  in 
vain. 

Noblesse  oblige. — Rank  imposes  obliga- 
tion. 

Nolens  volens. — Willing  or  unwilling. 

Noli  }>!e  tangere. — Don't  touch  me. 

Nolle  prosequi. — Unwilling  to  proceed. 

Nolo  episcopari. — I  am  not  willing  to  be 
made  a  bishop  (an  old  formal  way  of 
declining  a  bishopric.) 

Nam  de  guerre. — An  assumed  name. 

Nam  de  plume. — A  literary  title. 

Nomen  et  omen. — Name  and  omen;  a 
name  that  is  ominous. 

Non  compos  mentis. — Not  of  sound 
mind. 

Non  dejiciente  crumena. — If  the  money 
does  not  fail. 

Non  est  disputandum. — It  is  not  to  be 
disputed. 

Non  est  inventus. — Not  found. 

Non  libet. — It  does  not  please  me. 

Non  mi  ricordo. — I  don't  remember. 

Non  nobis  sohim. — Not  merely  for  our- 
selves. 

Non  obstante. — Notwithstanding. 


Non  omnis  moriar. — I  shall  not  wholly 

die. 
Non  passibus  aquis. — Not  with  equal 

steps. 
Non  sequitur. — It  does  not  follow:    an 

unwarranted  conclusion. 
Non  sibi,  sed  omnibus. — Not  for  itself, 

but  for  all. 
Nonchalance. — Coolness  ;    easy  indiffer- 
ence. 
Nonpareil. — Peerless  ;   a  small  printing 

type. 
Nosce  teipsum. — Know  thyself 
Noscitur  ex  sociis. — He  is  known  by  his 

companions. 
Nota  bene. — Mark  well. 
Nous  verrons. — We  shall  see. 
Novus  homo. — A  new  man. 
Nudum  pactum. — An  invalid  agreement. 
Nulla  crux,  nulla  corona. — No  cross, 

no  crown. 
Nulla  7iuova,  bona  nuova. — The  best 

news  is  no  news. 
Nullius  filius. — The  son  of  nobody. 
Nunc  aut  nunquam. — Now  or  never. 

O  tempora  !  o  viores  ! — Oh,  the  times  ! 
oh,  the  manners ! 

Obiif. — He  (or  she  1  died. 

Obiter  dictum. — A  thing  said  by  the  way, 
or  in  passing. 

Obsta  principiis. — Resist  the  first  be- 
ginnings. 

Odi profanum. — I  loathe  the  profane. 

Odium  tlieologicum. — The  hatred  of 
theologians. 

Ohe !  jam  satis. — Oh,  there  is  now 
enough. 

Ollapodrida. — An  incongruous  mixture. 

Omne  ignoium  pro  magnifico. — What- 
ever is  unknown  is  thought  to  be  mag- 
nificent. 

Omnes. — All. 

Omnia  bona  bonis. — All  things  are  good 
with  the  good. 

Omnia  vincit  amor. — Love  conquers  all 
things. 

On-dit. — A  rumour;  a  flying  report. 

Onus. — Burden. 

Onus  probandi. — The  responsibility  of 
producing  proof. 

Ope  et  consilio. — With  assistance  and 
counsel. 

Ora  et  labora.  —  Pray  and  work. 


368 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Orator  fit ,  poeta  iiascitur. — The  orator 
is  made  by  education,  but  a  poet  must 
be  born. 

Ore  rotunda. — With  full-sounding  voice. 

Otiuvi  cum  dignitate. — Dignified  leisure. 

Outre. — Preposterous  ;  eccentric. 

Oyer  and  Terminer. — A  criminal  court. 

Pallida  mors. — Pale  death. 

Par  excellence. — By  way  of  eminence. 

Par  nobile  fratruin. — A  noble  pair  of 

brothers;  two  just  alike. 
Pari  passu. — With  equal   step;    in  the 

same  degree. 
Parole  cChonneur. — Word  of  honour. 
Pars  pro  toto. — Part  for  the  whole. 
Particeps  criminis. — An  accomplice. 
Parturiunt  monies,  nascetur  ridiculus 
jnus. — 'J'he  mountains  are  in  labour  ; 
a   ridiculous    mouse   will    be   brought 
forth. 
Par7>a  coinpanere  inagnis. — To  compare 

small  things  with  great. 
Parvenu. — A  new  comer  ;   an  upstart. 
Pas. — A  step  ;  precedence. 
Passe-partout. — A  master-key. 
Passim. — In  many  places;  everywhere. 
Pater/amitias. — The  father  of  a  family. 
Pater  noster. — Our  Father;  the  Lord's 

prayer. 
Pater patr ire. — Father  of  his  country. 
Patois. — A  provincial  dialect. 
Pax  in  bello. — Peace  in  war. 
Peccavi. — I  have  sinned. 
Penchant. — An    inclination;    a    leaning 

toward. 
Pendente  lite. — While  the  suit  is  pending. 
Penetralia. — Secret  recesses. 
Per  aspera  ad  astra. — Through  trials  to 

glory. 
Per' capita. — By  the  head;    equal  divi- 
sion. 
Per  cent,  or  per  centum. — By  the  hun- 
dred. 
Per  contra. — Contrariwise. 
Per  curiam. — By  the  court. 
Per  diem. — By  the  day. 
Per  /as  et  ne/as. — Through   right   and 

wrong. 
Per  saltum. — With  a  leap  ;  at  once. 
Per  se. — By  itself;  alone. 
Perdu. — Lost. 

Pere  de  fatnille — The  father  of  a  family, 
/'f///.— Small  :  little. 


Petitio  principii. — A    begging    of    the 

question. 
Petit-ma'itre. — A  fop. 
Peu  a  peu. — Gradually  ;  a  little  by  little. 

Pinxit. — Painted   it :     placed   after  the 
artist's  name  on  a  picture. 

Piii. — More. 

Plateau. — A  plain;  a  flat  surface. 

Plebs. — Common  people. 

Pluries. — Very  often ;  a  third  writ,  after 
two  writs  have  issued. 

Poco. — A  little. 

Poeta  nascitur,  nonfit. — A  poet  is  born, 
not  made. 

Point  d'appui. — Point  of  support ;  prop. 

Poisson  d'Avril. — April  fool. 

Populus  vult  decipi. — People  like  to  be 
deceived. 

Posse    COM itat lis. —The    power   of    the 
county. 

Postea. — Afterward  ;  endorsement  of  the 
verdict  upon  the  record. 

Post  mortem. — After  death. 
_Postulata. — Things  assumed. 

Preecognita. — Things  previously  known. 

Prcemonitus,  prcemunitus. — Forewarn- 
ed, forearmed. 

Preux  che^ialier. — A  brave  knight. 

Prima  facie. — On  the  first  view. 

Primiim  jnobile. — The  primary  motive, 
or  moving  power. 

Primus    inter    pares, — Chief     among 
equals. 

Principia,    non    homines. — Principles, 
not  men. 

Principiis  obsta. — Resist  the  first  inno- 
vations. 

Pro  aris  et  focis. — For  our  altars  and 
our  hearths. 

Pro  bono  publico. — For  the  public  good. 

Pro  et  con  {(or  contra). — For  and  against. 

Pro  forma. — For  form's  sake  ;  accord- 
ing to  form. 

Pro  hac  vice. — For  this  turn  or  occasion. 

Pro  loco  et  tempore. — For  the  place  and 
time. 

Pro  patria. — For  our  country. 

Pro  rata. — In  proportion. 

Pro  re  nata. — For  a  special  emergency. 

Pro  tanto. — For  so  much. 

Pro  tempore. — For  the  time-being. 

Probatum  est. — It   has  been   tried  and 
proved. 

Prods-verbal. — A  written  statement. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


369 


Prochein  ami. — The  next  friend. 

Procul,  O  procul  este,  pro/ani  ! — Far, 
far  hence,  O  ye  profane  ! 

Prominciamento. — A  public  declara- 
tion. 

Propaganda  fide. — For  extending  the 
faith. 

Protege. — A  person  taken  charge  of,  or 
patronized;  a  ward,  &c. 

Prudens  futtiri. — Thoughtful  of  the 
future. 

Pugnis  et  calcibiis. — With  fists  and  heels ; 
with  all  the  might. 

Punka  fides. — Punic  faith  ;  treachery. 

Queers. — Quer>';  inquiry. 

Quamdiu  se  bene  gesserit. — So  long  as 
he  shall  conduct  himself  properly. 

Quantum.— The  due  proportion. 

Quantum  libet. — As  much  as  you  please. 

Quantum  }>ieruit. — As  much  as  he  de- 
served. 

Quantum  sufficit. — A  sufficient  quan- 
tity ;  enough. 

Quare  ciausum  f  regit. — An  action  for 
damages  to  real  estate. 

Quare  impedit. — Why  he  hinders. 

Quasi  dicas. — As  if  you  should  say. 

Que/que  chose. — A  trifle. 

Qui  capit,  ille  facit. — He  who  takes  it 
makes  it. 

Quipense  .'—Who  thinks  ? 

Qui  tam  ? — Who  as  well  ?  the  title  given 
to  a  certain  action  at  law. 

Qtii  transtulit  sustinet. — He  who 
brought  us  hither  still  preserves  us. 

Qtii  va  id  ? — Who  goes  there  ? 

Qui  vive  ? — Who  goes  there  ?  hence,  on 
the  gui-vive,  on  the  alert. 

Quid-nunc  ? — What  now  ?  a  newsmon- 
ger. 

Quid  pro  quo. — One  thing  for  another; 
"  tit  for  tat." 

Quid  rides  ? — Why  do  you  laugh  ? 

Quis  separabit? — Who  shall  separate 
us? 

Quo  animo  ? — With  what  intention. 

Quo  jure  ? — By  what  right? 

Quo  warranto. — By  what  warrant  or 
authority. 

Quoad  hoc. — To  this  extent. 

Quod  avertat  Deus  ? — Which  may  God 
avert ! 

Quod  vide. — Which  see. 


Quodlibet. — A  nice  point ;  a  subtlety. 

Quondam. — Former. 

Quorum. — Of  whom  :  a  term  signifying  a 
sufficient  number  for  a  certain  business. 

Quos  Deus  vult  pcrdere,  prius  de men- 
tat. — Those  whom  God  wishes  to  de- 
stroy, he  first  deprives  of  understand- 
ing. 

Ragout. — A  highly-seasoned  dish. 

Kara  avis  — A  rare  bird  ;  a  prodigy. 

Re  infecta. — The  business  being  un- 
finished. 

Recte  et  suaviter. — Justly  and  mildly. 

Rectus  in  curia. — Upright  in  the  court; 
with  clean  hands. 

Redolet  lucerna. — It  smells  of  the  lamp  ; 
it  is  a  laboured  production. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum. — A  reducing  a 
position  to  an  absurdity. 

Regina. — Queen. 

Regium  donum. — A  royal  donation  (a 
grant  from  the  British  crown  to  the 
Irish  Presbyterian  clergy.) 

Regnant popitli. — The  people  rule. 

Rencontre. — An  encounter. 

Renaissance . — New  birth  :  applied  to 
the  revival  of  the  classic  arts  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

Requiescant  in  pace. — May  they  rest  in 
peace. 

Requiescat  in  pace. — May  he  rest  in 
peace. 

Rerum primordia. — The  first  elements 
of  things. 

Res  atigusta  domi. — Narrow  circum- 
stances at  home ;  poverty. 

Res  integra. — An  entire  matter. 

Respice  finem. — Look  to  the  end. 

Respubiica.—The  commonwealth. 

Restaurateur. — A  tavern-keeper  who 
provides  dinners,  &c. 

Resume. — An  abstract  or  summary. 

Resurgam. — I  shall  rise  again. 

Rez'enons  a  nos  tnozttons. — Let  us  return 
to  our  subject. 

Rex. — King. 

Rouge. — Red  colouring  for  the  skin. 

Rouge  et  noir. — Red  and  black  (a  kind 
of  game.) 

Rus  in  urbe. — The  country  in  town. 

Ruse  contre  ruse. — Diamond  cut  dia- 
mond ;  trick  for  trick. 

Ruse  de  guerre. — A  stratagem  of  war. 


370 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


.SW/c— Hall. 

Salus populi  su/>reiiia  le.x  est. — The  wel- 
fare of  the  people  is  in  the  supreme  law. 
Sahio  pudore. — Without  offence  to  mo- 
desty. 
Sanctum  sanctorum. — Holy  of  Holies. 
Sang-froid. — Coolness  ;  self-possession. 
Sans. — Without. 

Sans  ceremonie. — Without  ceremony. 
Sans  peiir  et  sans  reproche. — Without 

fear  and  without  reproach. 
Sans  souci. — Without    care ;     free   and 

easy. 
Sans  tache. — Stainless. 
Sans-culottes. — Without     breeches  :       a 

term  applied  to  the  rabble  of  the  French 

Revolution. 
Sartor  resartus. — The  cobbler  mended. 
Satis,    superque. — Enough,    and    more 

than  enough. 
Satis  ver6oru}n. — Enough  of  words  ;  you 

need  say  no  more. 
SauTv  qui pejit. — Save  himself  who  can. 
Savant. — A  learned  man. 
Savoir-faire. — Ability  ;  skill. 
Scandatum  magnatum. — Scandal  of  the 

great. 
Scienter. — Knowingly. 
Scilicet. — That  is  to  say  ;  to  wit. 
Scire  facias. — Cause  it  to  be  known. 
Scripsit. — Wrote  it. 
Sculpsit. — Engraved  it:   placed  after  the 

engraver's  name  in  prints. 
Secundum  artem. — According  to  rule. 
Selon  les  rigles. — According  to  rule. 
Semper fidelis. — Always  faithful. 
Semper  idem. — Always  the  same. 
Semper  par atus. — Always  ready. 
Senatus  consultum. — A   decree  of   the 

senate. 
Seriatim. — In  order;  successively. 
Si  quceris  peninsulam  ama-nam,  cir- 

cumspice. — If  thou  seekest  a  beautiful 

peninsula,  behold  it  here. 
Sic   in   originali. — So   it   stands  in  the 

original. 
Sic  itur  ad  astra. — Such  is  the  way  to 

immortality. 
Sic  passim. — So  everywhere. 
Sic  semper  tyrannis. — So  be  it  ever  to 

tyrants. 
Sic  transit  gloria  mundi. — Thus  passes 

away  the  glory  of  the  world. 
Sicut  ante. — As  before. 


Situilia  similiius  curantur. — Like 
things  are  cured  by  like. 

Simplex  munditiis. — Of  simple  elegance. 

Sine  die. — Without  naming  a  day. 

Sine  invidid. — Without  envy. 

Sine  qua  non. — An  indispensable  requi- 
site. 

Siste,  viator. — Stop,  traveller. 

Sobriquet. ^.\  nickname. 

Soi-disant. — Self-styled  ;  pretended. 

Soiree. — An  evening  party. 

Souvenir. — Remembrance ;   a  keepsake. 

Spartam  nactus  es,  hanc  e.vorna. — 
You  have  got  something  good ;  make 
the  most  of  it  you  can. 

Spectas  et  spectaberis. — You  will  see 
and  be  seen. 

Spes  mea  Christus. — Christ  is  my  hope. 

Spolia  opima. — The  richest  booty. 

Stans  pede  in  una. — Standing  on  one 
foot. 

Statu  quo,  or  in  statu  quo. — In  the  same 
state. 

Stet. — Let  it  stand. 

Suaviter  in  modo,fortiter  in  re. — Gen- 
tle in  manner,  resolute  in  deed. 

Subjudice. — Under  consideration. 

Sub  rosa. — Under  the  rose  ;  privately. 

Sub  silent io. — In  silence. 

Subparna. — Under  a  penalty  :  a  sum- 
mons to  attend  a  court  as  a  witness. 

Succedatieum. — A  substitute. 

Sui generis. — Of  its  own  kind  ;  peculiar. 

Summum  bonum. — The  chief  good. 

Supersedeas. — A  writ  to  stay  proceed- 
ings. 

Super  visuJH  corporis. — Upon  a  view  of 
the  body. 

Suppressio  veri,  suggest  io  falsi. — A  sup- 
pression of  the  truth  is  the  suggestion 
of  a  falsehood. 

Supra. — Above. 

Suum  cuique. — Let  every  one  have  his 
own. 

Table  d'hote. — An  ordinary  at  which  the 

master  of  the  hotel  presides. 
Tabula  rasa. — A  smooth  or  blank  tablet. 
Teedium  vitce. — Weariness  of  life. 
Tale  quale. — Such  as  it  is. 
Tanl  tnieux. — So  much  the  better. 
Tant  pis. — So  much  the  worse. 
Tapis — The  carpet. 
Tartufjfe. — A  nickname  for  a  hypocriti- 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


371 


cal  devotee,  derived  from  the  principal 
character  in  Mohere's  comedy  so  called. 

Tejudice. — You  may  judge. 

Tempora  muianiur,  et  nos  7itutamur 
in  illis. — The  times  are  changed,  and 
we  are  changed  with  them. 

Tenipus  edcix  rerum. — Time  the  de- 
vourer  of  all  things. 

Tempusfugit. — Time  flies. 

Tetnpus  omnia  revelat. — Time  reveals 
all  things. 

Teres  atgice  rotundus. — Smooth  and 
round  ;  polished  and  complete. 

Terra  Jirnia. — Solid  earth;  a  safe  foot- 
ing. 

Terra  incognita. — An  unknown  country. 

Terre  tetiant. — A  person  in  actual  pos- 
session of  the  land. 

Tertium  quid. — A  third  something;  a 
nondescript. 

Tete-a-tete. — A  conversation  between 
two  parties. 

Tirade. — A  tedious  and  bitter  harangue. 

Ton. — The  fashion. 

Torso. — The  fragmentary  trunk  of  a 
statue. 

Tort. — A  wrong ;  an  injury. 

Tot  homines,  guot  sententice. — So  many 
men,  so  many  minds. 

Totidem  verbis. — Injust  so  many  words. 

Toties  quoties. — As  often  as. 

Toto  coelo. — By  the  whole  heavens  ;  dia- 
metrically opposite. 

Toto  corde.—'^vih.  the  whole  heart. 

ToKJoiirs pret. — Always  ready. 

Tour  a  tour. — By  turns. 

Tout  bien  ou  rien. — The  whole  or  noth- 
ing. 

Tout  ensemble. — The  whole. 

Tria  juncta  in  uno. — Three  united  in 
one. 

Tu  quoque.  Brute ! — And  thou  too, 
Brutus ! 

Tuebor. — I  will  defend. 

Tutto  e  biiotio  che  vien  da  Dio. — All  is 
good  which  comes  from  God. 

Tuum  est. — It  is  your  own. 

LT>i  JUS  incertum,  ibi  jus  nullum. — 
Where  the  law  is  uncertain,  there  is  no 
law. 

Ubi  libertas,  ibi  patria. — Where  liberty 
dwells,  there  is  my  country. 

Ubi  supra. — Where  above  mentioned. 


Ultima  ratio  regum. — The  last  argu- 
mentof  kings;  military  weapons;  war. 

Ultima  Thjtle. — The  utmost  boundary 
or  limit. 

Ulti?nattim. — A  final  answer  or  decision. 

Un  bel  esprit. — A  wit ;  a  virtuoso. 

Un  sot  d  triple  etage. — An  egregious 
blockhead. 

Una  voce. — With  one  voice  ;  unani- 
mously. 

Unique. — Singular;  the  only  one  of  its 
kind. 

Usque  ad  fiauseam.- — To  disgust. 

Usus  loquendi. — Usage  in  speaking. 

Ut  in/ra.^As  below. 

Uti  possidetis. — As  you  possess  ;  state 
of  present  possession. 

Utile  dulci. — Utility  with  pleasure. 

Vade-mecum. — Go  with  me  ;  a  constant 
companion. 

Vtz  victis. — Woe  to  the  vanquished  ! 

Vale. — Farewell. 

Valet-de-chambre. — A  servant  who  as- 
sists his  master  in  dressing. 

Variee  lectiones. — Various  readings. 

Veluti  in  speculum. — As  in  a  mirror. 

Venditioni  exponas. — That  you  expose 
to  sale  ;  writ  of  execution. 

Veni,  vidi,  vici. — I  came,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered. 

Venire. — To  come;  a  writ  to  a  sheriff 
directing  him  to  summon  jurors. 

Venue. — The  place  from  which  the  jury 
are  drawn. 

Verbatim  et  literatim. — Word  for  word 
and  letter  for  letter. 

Verbum  sat  sapietiti.—A  word  is  enough 
for  a  wise  man. 

Verdad  es  verdc. — Truth  is  green. 

Veritas  vincit.- — Truth  conquers. 

Versus. — Against ;  toward. 

Vertu,  Virtu. — Virtue;  taste;  art;  skill. 

Veto.—\  forbid. 

Vi  et  armis. — By  force  and  arms. 

Via. — By  the  way  of 

Via  media. — A  middle  course. 

Vice. — In  the  room  of. 

Vice  versa. — The  terms  being  ex- 
changed ;  reversely. 

P'ide. — See. 

Vide  et  crede. — See  and  believe. 

Vide  ut  supra. — See  as  above. 

Videlicet, — To  wit,  namely. 


32 


372 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Videttes. — Sentinels  on  horseback. 

Vignette. — A  name  given  to  slight  en- 
gravings with  which  books,  bank-notes, 
&c.  are  ornamented. 

I'incit  amor  patrice. — Love  of  country 
prevails. 

l'i>ic!il!i»i  vtatriiiwnii. — The  bond  of 
marriage. 

I'irtuoso. — One  skilled  in  matters  of 
taste  or  art. 

Virtnte  officii. — By  virtue  of  office. 

Vis  inertiee.— Inert  power;, the  tendency 
of  every  body  to  remain  at  rest. 

Vis  jitedicairijc  natures. — The  healing 
tendency  of  nature. 

Vis  poetica. — Poetic  genius. 

Vis  tHif. — The  vigour  of  life. 

Vis-a-vis. — Face  to  face. 

Vita  brevis,  ars  longa. — Life  is  short, 
and  art  is  long. 

Viva  voce. — By  word  of  mouth;  by  the 
living  voice. 

Vivant  rex  et  rcgina. — Long  live  the 
king  and  queen. 

Vivat  rcgina. — Long  live  the  queen. 

Vivat  respublica. — Live  the  republic. 

Vive  la  bagatelle. — Success  to  trifling. 

Vive  la  reine. — Long  live  the  queen. 

Vive  Fempereur. — Long  live  the  em- 
peror. 


Vive  le  roi. — Long  live  the  king. 

Vive  I'itnperatrice. — Long  live  the  em- 
press. 

Vive,  vale. — Farewell,  and  be  happy. 

Voila  tout. — That's  all. 

Voilit  une  autre  chose. — That's  quite  a 
different  matter. 

Voir  dire. — A  preliminary  examination 
to  determine  the  competency  of  a  wit- 
ness. 

Volens  et  potens. — Willing  and  able. 

Volga  gran  bestia. — The  mob  is  a  great 
beast. 

I'olere  e poterc. — To  will  is  to  do. 

I'olti  subito. — Turn  over  quickly. 

Vox,  et  prceterea  nihil. — A  voice,  and 
nothing  more. 

Vox  populi,  vox  Dei. — The  people's 
voice  is  God's  voice. 

Vox  stellaru7n. — The  voice  of  the  stars: 
applied  to  almanacs. 

Vulgb. — Vulgarly  ;  commonly. 

Vuelta. — Over,  to  next  page  or  (o.) 

Vulnus  immedicabile . — An  irreparable 
injury. 

Vultus  est  index  anitni. — The  counte- 
nance is  the  index  of  the  mind. 

Zonain  solvere. — To  loose  the  virgin 
zone. 


INDEX. 


Abbreviated  syllables,  15. 
Abbreviations,  list  of,  344-356. 
Abecedariuin,  probably  the  earliest  at- 
tempt at  printing,  11. 
Accents  and  aspirates,  Greek,  99-101. 
Hebrew,  106-108. 
Russian,  112,  113. 
Accented  letters,  67. 
Acids  used  in  making  paper  spoil  the 

effect  of  ink,  276,  277. 
Adams,  Isaac,  inventor  of  the  bed-and- 

platen  power-press,  237,  238. 
Adhesion  of  paper,  how  to  prevent,  316. 
Admiration,  sign  of,  63. 
Agate  type,  specimen  of,  54. 
Alcfrid,  Runic  memorial  of,  89. 
Alexandri  Galli  Doctrinale,  one  of  the 

first  printed  books,  10. 
Almanac,  first  printed  book  in  the  Mid- 
dle Colonies,  16,  17. 
Alphabet,  Anglo-Saxon,  91. 
English,  58. 
German,  94. 
Greek,  98. 
Hebrew,  104. 
Hieroglyphic,  84. 
Runes,  86-90. 
Russian,  112,  113. 
Alterations  in  a  proof  justly  chargeable, 
204,  205,  211. 
not   allowable   in   reprints   of  old 
and  standard  authors,  202. 
Amber  ink,  how  to  produce,  28S. 
Ambiguous  and  compound  words  to  be 

set  uniformly,  202. 
American  type,  superior  quality  of,  23. 
Atuerican  Weekly  Mercury,  third  news- 
paper in  America,  17. 
Ancient   ornaments,   e.xquisite    and    cu- 
rious, 15,  16. 
press,  clumsy,  235. 
typographical  peculiarities,  15. 
Anglo-Saxon  characters,  how  originated, 
51- 
alphabetical  table  of,  91. 
cases  for,  92,  93. 
Lord's  Prayer  in,  51. 
runes,  table  of,  88. 
Apostrophe,  how  used,  63,  64. 
Appeal  against  the  Turks,  of  1454,  11. 
Applegath    and    Cowper,   improvers  of 
the  cylinder  press,  238,  239. 


Apprentice,  how  to  instruct  an,  122. 

must   be   punctual,  obedient,  and 
courteous,  123. 

qualifications  required  in  an,  121. 

ridiculous  practices  to  be  avoided 
by,  122. 
Apprentices,  advice  to,  137,  13S. 
Arithmetical   figures,   when   introduced, 

70. 
Article,  the  indefinite,  rule  for  using,  318. 
Ascending  letters,  59. 
Asterisk,  use  of,  66. 
Astronomical  signs,  73,  74. 
Authors,  detention  of  proofs  by,  205. 

hints  to,  211. 

impatience  of,  205. 

whims  of,  61. 
Automatic  counter,  illustrated,  310. 

machine,  for  casting  and  finishing 
type,  23. 

Backing  long  or  short  pages,  133. 
Baine.  John,  sets  up  a  type-foundry  in 

Philadelphia,  19. 
Bay  Psahn-Book,  first  book  printed  at 

Cambridge,  16. 
Bearers  on  hand-presses,  how  prepared, 

259,  277,  278.  281. 
Beaumont,  Victor,  inventor  of  serrated 

cutting  blade,  242. 
Beginners,  ironical  rules  for,  139,  140. 
Bewcastle  cross.  Runic  inscription  on,  8g. 
Bible,  first,  printed  at  Mentz,  by  Guten- 
berg,    Fust    and    Schoeffer,    in 
1455,    of  which    there    are   four 
copies  in  Europe  and  two  in  the 
United  States,  11. 
Brinley's,  11. 
German,  printed  in  Germantown, 

by  Saur,  19. 
Lenox's,  11. 
Mazarin,  11. 

printed  in  Iceland  in  15S4,  14. 
quarto,  in  standing  type,  in  Phila- 
delphia, 26. 
Biblia  Pauperui/i ,  attributed  to  Koster, 

10. 
Bill  of  tjTSe,  57. 

Binny,  Archibald,  first  successful  founder 
in  Philadelphia,  19,  20. 
improver  of  the  type-mould,  19,  42. 
Black  letter,  when  used,  51. 

373 


374 


INDEX. 


Blades,  William,  14. 

Blaeu,  Willem  Jansen,  early  inventor  of 

a  press,  235. 
Blankets  for  wood-cut  printing,  282. 
India-rubber,  266. 
thick  paper,  266. 
Welsh  flannel,  266. 
when  to  be  used,  257,  266. 
Blanking,  remarks  concerning,  259. 
Bleaching  powders  deleterious,  276. 
Block  books,  10. 
Blue  ink,  how  to  make,  287,  288. 
Bodkin,  how  to  use  the,  208,  209. 

illustrated,  209,  210. 
Books,   cheapening    of,   due    to    steam- 
presses,  240. 
early,   printed   in   Gothic   charac- 
ter, 16. 
first,  printed   on   one  side   of  the 

leaf  only,  10. 
how  to  presene,  317. 
Book-folding  machine,  illustrated,  249. 
Borders,  80,  120. 

Boston  Gazette,  second  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  America,  17. 
News-Letter,  first  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  America,  17. 
Bourgeois,  specimen  of,  54. 
Boxwood,  description  of  good,  36. 
liable  to  warp,  282,  283. 
quoin,  306. 
Braces,  use  of,  75. 
Bracket,  how  used,  65. 
Bradford,  William,   first   printer  in   the 

Middle  Colonies,  16,  17. 
Brass  rules,  remarks  concerning,  80. 

slotted  comers,  description  of,  44. 
Brea^-lines  improperly  driven  over,  133. 

should  never  begin  a  page,  133. 
Brevier,  specimen  of,  54. 
Brilliant,  smallest  type  in  America,  52. 

specimen  of,  54. 
Brinley's  collection  of  Bibles,  11. 
British  founders  reject  American  casting- 
machines.  23. 
Bronze  printing,  how  executed,  284,  285. 
Brown  ink,  how  to  produce,  288. 
Bruce,  David  and  George,  type-founders 
in  New  York,  21,  22. 
David,  Jr.,  type-casting  machine 
invented  by,  22. 
Bullock,  William,   inventor  of  the   first 
perfecting  press,  242-244. 
chain-running  press,  244. 
self-feeding  perfecting  press,  illus- 
trated, 243. 
Bundle  of  paper  described,  294. 

Cabinet  for  chases,  illustrated,  231. 

with  galley-top,  illustrated,  304. 
Cabinets,  job  cases  should  be  kept  in, 
304- 
of  cases,  for  sorts,  quads,  etc.,  illus- 
trated, 219-221. 
should  be  kept  in  perfect  order,  221. 


Cambridge,  first  press  in  North  America 

at,  16. 
Campbell's  cylinder  presses,  239,  246. 

self-feeding  pert'ecting  press,  246. 
Cancelled  figures,  70. 
Capital,  good  character  is,  138. 

letters,  58-60. 

letters,  how  to  use,  59,  60. 
Card-cutters,  309. 

printing,  directions  for,  283,  284. 

sheets,     chart     for    cutting,     (Le 
Blond,)  302. 
Carey,  Mathew,  26. 
Cases,  American   plan   of  Roman,  124, 

125- 

blank,  303. 

German,  96,  97. 

Greek,  102,  103. 

Hebrew,  log,  in. 

how  to  label  job,  304. 

job,  302. 

labour-saving  lead,  303. 

labour-saving  rule,  82,  302. 

labour-saving  slug,  303. 

music,  1 1 7-1 19. 

number  of,  to  a  fount,  128. 

proposed  improvement  in,  126. 

quotation  furniture,  303. 

Saxon,  92,  93. 

triple  job,  302. 
Caslon,  William,  18. 
Cassie  quires,  why  so  called,  294. 
Casting  off  copy,  methods  of,  223-226. 
Catch-words,  first  used  at  Venice,  16. 

in  titles,  how  to  be  set,  134. 
Caxton,  William,  introduces  printing  into 
England,  14. 

his  first  types  not  cast  or  founded, 

13- 
Centennial  Exhibition,  1876,  presses  ex- 
hibited at,  244-246. 

fast  printing  at,  245. 
Chalcography,  inventor  of,  34. 
Chromo-lithography,  29. 
Chromos,  printed  on  cylinder  presses,  31. 
Chronicle  0/  Cologne,  p. 
Cicero,  French   and   German   name   for 

Pica,  53. 
Circular  quadrates,  78. 
Clicker,  or  maker-up.  duties  of,  226-228. 
Clymer,  George,  inventor  of  the  Colum- 
bian press,  236,  237. 
Colon,  use  of,  62. 
Colorito,  Abraham,  printer  at  Soncino, 

1488,  14. 
Colour,  uniformity  in,  263,  278,  279. 
Coloured  inks,  how  to  make,  286-288. 

printing,  instructions  for,  285-287. 
Colours,  contrast  of,  289-292. 

how  to  multiply,  288. 

how  to  use  dry,  287,  288. 
Columbian  press,  illustrated,  236. 

introduced  into  England,  237. 
Combination  borders,  80,  120 
Comma,  use  of,  62. 


INDEX. 


375 


Commercial  post  paper,  size  of,  298. 

signs,  71. 
Companionships,  how  managed,  228-232. 

misunderstandings  in,  228. 
Composing,  directions  for,  129-136. 

how  to  avoid  errors  in,  130. 

position  in,  127. 

rule,  steel,  illustrated,  228. 

sticks,  illustrated,  305. 

screw,  the  best  for  fixed  measures, 
305- 
Composition  rollers,  how  to  make,  252- 

254,  311,  312- 

how  to  wash,  253. 

melting-kettle  for,  illustrated,  252. 
Compositors,  differences  in,  218. 

rules  to  be  observed  by,  233,  234. 
Compound  words,  64,  65,  331. 
Contents,  rules  for,  135. 
Continuous  sheet,  printing  from  a,  242. 
Contrast  of  colours,  289-292. 
Conversation   in   a  printing  office  to   be 

avoided,  234. 
Copy,  casting  off,  223-226. 

takes  of,  should  be  small,  221. 

to  be  carefully  prepared,  204. 
Copyholder,  illustrated,  309. 
Copyrights,  how  to  secure,  333-335. 

application  to  be  made  to  Libra- 
rian of  Congress,  333. 

cannot    be    granted    upon    trade- 
marks or  labels,  335. 

duration  of,  334. 

form  of  notice,  334. 

penalty  for  false  notice,  334. 

renewal  of,  334. 
Cork  bearers,  259. 
Comer  quadrates,  illustrated,  307. 
Corpus,  German  name  for  Long  Primer, 

54- 
Correcting  in  the  metal,  207-211. 

directions  for,  208-210. 

rules  for,  in  a  companionship,  231, 
232. 
Coster,  (see  Koster,)  9-1 1. 
Cottrell   &   Babcock's   cylinder  presses, 

239- 
Counting  out  sheets,  297. 
Courtesy,  importance  of,  123. 
Creases  and  wrinkles  in  paper,  how  to 

remove,  263. 
Cross-bar,  how  to  avoid  springing,  148. 
Crown  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Cut-in  notes,  how  adjusted,  131,  132. 
Cuts,  how  to  make  ready,  280-283. 
Cylinder  press,  invention  of  the,  238. 

presses,  making  ready  on,  265-275. 


Dagger  or  obelisk,  use  of,  66. 

Dash,  use  of,  63. 

Dates,    method    of,   during   the    French 

Republic,  6g. 
Daye,  John,  Anglo-Saxon  types  first  cut 
by,  51- 


Daye,   Stephen,   first   printer  in   North 

America,  16. 
Dedications,  how  displayed,  135. 

position  of,  135. 
Degener  &  Weiler's  Liberty  press,  illus- 
trated, 246,  247. 
Delicate  impression,  how  to  produce,  281, 

282. 
Demy  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Derivation  of  English  words,  324-326. 
Descending  letters,  59. 
DeVinne's  history  of  the   invention   of 

printing,  12. 
Diamond  type,  specimen  of,  54. 
Diphthongs,  Greek,  99 
Distributing,  directions  for,  128,  129. 

how  to  wash  matter  for,  128,  120. 

pernicious     efi"ects    from    heatmg 
type  for,  129. 

proper  times  for,  129. 
Dividing  words,  rules  for,  64,  65. 
Donatiis  of  1451,  11. 
Double  imperial  paper,  size  of,  298. 

letters,  59. 

medium  paper,  size  of,  298. 

super-royal  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Drawing  paper,  how  to  be  wet,  256. 
Dry  colours,  how  to  use,  287,  288. 
Duck's  bill,  to  prevent  paper  from  slip- 
ping on  the  tympan,  278. 
Duodecimo,  or  twelves,  scheme  for  im- 
posing sheet  of,  165. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  166. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  167. 

half-sheet,  168. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  168. 

the  same,  from  the  centre,  169. 

sheet  of,  from  the  centre,  170. 

the  same,  long  way,  171,  172. 

one-third  of  a  sheet,  171,  172. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  173. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  174. 

Earl  Stanhope's  printing-press,  236. 
Earliest  printing-press,  235. 

viritten  sounds,  83-85. 
Egyptian    hieroglyphics,    specimens    of 

type  for  printing,  83-85. 
Eighteens.    scheme    for    imposing    half- 
sheet  of,  176. 

the  same,  with  two  blanks,  176. 

sheet  of,  folded  together,  177,  178. 

the  same,  with  one  signature,  177, 

the  same,  with  two  signatures,  179, 

180. 
the   same,  with   three   signatures, 

179,  180. 
half-sheet    of,    without    transposi- 
tion, 181. 
Electro-stereotyping,  27,  43. 
Electrotyping,  method  of,  27. 
Emerald  green,  288. 

Enamelled  cards,  to  be  printed  drj-,  283, 
284. 


32* 


376 


INDEX. 


English  type,  specimen  of,  53. 
Engraver's  proof  useful  to  pressmen,  283. 
Engravings,  copper-plate,  34. 
how  to  print,  280-283. 
how  to  restore,  317. 
tools  for,  34. 
wood,  31-34. 
Epitaph,  printer's,  208. 
Errata,  list  of,  where  placed,  136. 
Errors  inevitable,  136. 

made   in   correcting  a  proof,  203, 
204. 
Escala   espiritital  de   San    yuan    Cli- 
maco,  the  first  book  printed  in  Ame- 
rica, 16. 
Even  impressions  on  a  hand-press,  how 

to  obtain,  277-279. 
Exclamation,  sign  of,  63. 

Feed-guides,  Megill's,  illustrated,  310. 
Figgins's,  Vincent,  opinion  of  Caxton's 

type,  13. 
Figures,  arithmetical,  70. 

old  style,  70. 

scratched  or  cancelled,  70. 
Filling  the  standing  press,  296,  297. 
Fine  hand-presswork,  remarks  concern- 
ing. 275-279- 

printing,  character  of  ink  required 
for,  275,  276. 

paper  suitable  for,  257. 

why  difficult  in  the  United  States, 
276,  277. 
Finiguerra,  Thomas,  discoverer  of  chal- 
cography, 34. 
Firefly  press,  Gordon's,  247. 
Fireproof  ink,  314. 
Flat  cap  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Flowers  and  borders,  remarks  on,  80. 
Fly  on  cylinder  presses,  how  to  be  set,  274. 
Folding  machines,  249. 
Folio,  imposing  single  sheet  of,  150. 

paper,  size  of,  298. 

two  sheets  quired,  151,  152. 
Follow  copy,  the  compositor's  rule,  204. 
Foolscap  paper,  dimensions  of,  298. 
Foreign  words  and  phrases,  translated, 

357-372- 
Foreman,   duties   and   qualifications  of, 

218—232, 
Form,   how   to   make    ready   for  hand- 
press,  257-260. 
of  warehouse  book,  293. 
Forms,  directions  for  locking  up,  147, 148. 
how  to  impose,  141,  142. 
how  to  wash,  264,  265. 
precautions  in  unlocking,  208. 
Forties,  scheme  for  imposing  half-sheet 

of,  191. 
Forty-eights,  scheme  for  imposing  quarter 
sheet  of,  with  two  signatures,  192. 
the  same,  without  cutting,  193. 
half-sheet  of,  192. 
the  same,  three  signatures,  193. 
quarter  sheet  of,  194. 


Foul  proof,  a  grievous  fault,  207. 
Founders,    English,  ancient   regulations 

concerning,  18. 
Fount  of  letter,  complete,  described,  58. 
Founts,  irregularities  of,  58. 
Fractions,  70. 

Franklin,     Benjamin,     attempts     type- 
founding,  19. 
James,  establishes  the  New  Eng- 
land Courant,  17. 
Franklin  presses,  Gordon's,  247. 

illustrated,  246. 
Friars,  how  to  obviate,  263. 
Frisket,  directions  for  preparing,  258. 

catch  of,  how  to  place,  259. 
Full  point,  use  of,  62,  63. 
Furniture,  how  to  make  up,  144,  145. 
Fust,  John,  connection  with   Gutenberg 
and  Schosffer,  11,  12. 

Gaillarde,  French  term  for  Bourgeois 

type,  54- 
Gallows,  how  to  be  placed,  259. 
Gavic   0/  Chess,   first   book   printed   in 

England  by  Caxton,  14. 
Gauge  pins,  Megill's,  illustrated,  310. 
Ged,  William,  inventor  of  stereotyping, 

24. 
Geometrical  signs,  71,  72. 
German  alphabet,  94. 

plan  of  cases  for,  96,  97. 

similar  letters  elucidated,  94,  95. 
Germantown,  first  paper  mill  in  America, 
near,  17. 

first     quarto     Bible    in    America, 
printed  at,  19. 

type  cast  at,  by  Saur,  19. 
Giving  out  book  paper  to  wet,  294. 

paper  for  jobs,  294,  295. 
Globe  press,  248. 
Glover,  Jesse,   introduces   printing  into 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  16. 
Glue,  common  prepared,  313. 

liquid,  how  to  make,  313. 
Gold  preparation,  how  to  use,  288. 

printing,  how  practised,  284,  317. 

size  for  gold  printing,  284. 
Good  habits  inculcated,  121-123, 137, 138. 

presswork,  conditions  for  securing, 
279. 
Gordon's  Franklin  press,  illustrated,  246. 

job-presses,  246,  247. 
Gothic   characters,  early   books  printed 

in,  16. 
Gradation  of  type  bodies,  56. 
Grant  'I'horbum,  benevolence  of,  239. 
(Jreat  Primer,  specimen  of,  53. 
Greek  accents  and  aspirates,  98-101. 

alphabetical  table  of,  98. 

letters,  numerical  value  of,  67,  98. 

ligatures  now  discarded,  98. 

numeral  letters,  table  of,  67. 

plan  of  cases  for,  102,  103. 

rules  for  composing,  loi. 
Green  ink,  how  to  make,  288. 


INDEX. 


377 


Gros    Romain,    French    title    for  Great 

Primer,  53. 
Guillemet's  quotation  marks,  62. 
Gutenberg,  account  of,  9-14. 
Gutter-sticks,  directions  for  cutting,  148. 
Gypsum  in  paper,  effects  of,  276,  277. 

Haarlem,  the  birthplace  of  printing,  9. 
Hand-mould  improved  by  Binny,  20. 
Hand-press,  how  to  prepare  impression 
on,  275-279. 
how  to  overlay  on,  277. 
bearers  used  on,  277,  278. 
Hand-presswork,  fine,  how  to  produce, 

275-279. 
Handwriting,  erroneous  notion  concern- 
ing, 226. 
Hanging  pages,  how  to  rectify,  208. 

up  paper  to  6xy,  295. 
Hansard's    receipt    for  making    rollers, 

253,  254. 
Hard  roller,  best  for  fine  work,  267. 
Head-lines,  how  displayed,  131. 
Heap  of  paper,  how  to  treat,  259. 
Heated  type,  pernicious  eflTects  from  dis- 
tributing it,  129. 
Hebrew  accents,  106-108. 

alphabet,   identical    with    Phosni- 

cian,  83. 
alphabetical  table  of,  104. 
Bible,  first  printed,  14. 
letters,  numeral  value  of,  104. 
letters  of  similar  appearance,  105. 
lower  case,  without  points,  109. 
Masoretic  points  or  vowels,  106. 
method  of  composing,  105. 
plan  of  cases  with  points,  no,  in. 
scheme  for  imposing  8vo  sheet  of, 

161,  162. 
spacing  letters,  105. 
Height  of  type,  standard  for,  57,  58. 
Hieroglyphic  alphabet,  84. 
Hinderances  to  fine  printing  in  America, 

276,  277. 
Hints  honoured  in  the  breach,  136,  137. 
Hoe  &  Co.'s  cylinder  presses,  239-242. 
Hoe,   Richard  M.,  inventor   of  tj^pe-re- 
volving  printing  machine,  241. 
Robert,  account  of,  239,  240. 
Hoe's  web  perfecting  press,  illustrated, 

245- 
Hollow  quadrates,  use  of,  77. 
Horn-book,  illustration  of,  xi. 
Humphreys's  History  of  the  Art  of  Print- 
ing, 12. 
Hurried  work,  how  to  expedite,  226-228. 
Hyphen,  how  employed,  64,  65. 

not  used  by  the  earliest  printers,  15. 

IcEL.\N'D,  early  printing  office  in,  14. 
Imperial  and  half  paper,  size  of,  298. 

paper,  dimensions  of,  298. 
Imposing  forms,  directions  for,  141,  142. 

in  companionships,  rules  for,  230, 
231. 


Imposing,  memoranda  concerning,  148, 
149. 

abstract  title-deeds,  150. 

Folio,  single  sheet,  150. 

two  sheets,  quired,  151,  152. 

Quarto,  common  sheet  of,  153, 
154- 

scheme  for,  music  books,  153,  154. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  155,  156. 

half-sheet,  broad  way,  155,  156. 

Octavo,  sheet  of,  157,  158. 

the  broad  way,  157,  158. 

half-sheet,  159. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  159,  160. 

two  quarters,  together,  160. 

sheet,  mi.\ed,  161,  162. 

sheet  of  Hebrew,  161,  162. 

sheet,  from  the  centre,  163,  164. 

half-sheet,  from  the  centre,  163. 

two  quarters,  from  the  centre,  164. 

Duodecimo,  or  i2mo,  sheet,  165. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  166. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  167. 

half-sheet,  168. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  168. 

the  same,  from  the  centre,  i6g. 

sheet  of,  from  the  centre,  170. 

the  same,  long  way,  171,  172 

one-third  of  a  sheet,  171,  172. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  173. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  174. 

SiXTEENS,  half-sheet  of,  174. 

sheet  of,  175. 

EiGHTEENS,  half-sheet  of,  176. 

the  same,  with  two  blanks,  176. 

sheet  of,  folded  together,  177,  178. 

sheet  of,  one  signature,  177,  17S. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  179,  180. 

sheet  of,  three  signatures,  179,  180. 

half-sheet  of,  without  transposi- 
tion, 181. 

Twenties,  half-sheet  of,  with  two 
signatures,  181. 

sheet  of,  182 

Twenty-Fours,  half-sheet  of,  183. 

sheet  of,  two  signatures,  183,  184. 

half-sheet  of,  sixteen-way,  184. 

half-sheet  of,  long,  185. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  185. 

half-sheet,  without  cutting,  186. 

Thirty-Twos,  half-sheet  of,  186. 

sheet  of,  187,  188. 

the  same,  four  signatures,  187,  188. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  189. 

half-sheet  of,  mixed,  189. 

Thirty-Sixes,  half-sheet  of,  190. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  190. 

the  same,  two  signatures,  191. 

Forties,  half-sheet  of,  191. 

Forty"-Eights,  quarter  sheet  of, 
with  two  signatures,  192. 

the  same,  without  cutting,  193. 

common  quarter-sheet  of,  194. 

half-sheet  of,  two  signatures,  192. 

the  same,  three  signatures,  193. 


378 


INDEX. 


Imposing  Sixty-Fours,  quarter  sheet, 
195- 
the  same,  two  signatures,  194. 
sixty-fours,  mixed,  195. 
half-sheet  of,  196. 
Seventy-Twos,  half-sheet  of,  197. 
Ninety-Sixes,  half-sheet  of,  198. 
One    Hundred    and    Twenty- 
Eights,  half-sheet  of,  199. 
Imposing  stone,  illustrated,  308. 
Impression  on  cylinder  presses,  how  to 

regulate,  269-275. 
Indenting  paragraphs,  rule  for,  132. 
Index,  directions  for  preparing  copy  of, 

133- 
rule  for  setting,  133. 
where  placed,  133. 
India  paper  suitable  for  overlays,  280. 
India-rubber  cloth,  good  qualities  of,  266. 
Ink-block,  how  to  be  placed,  251. 
Ink,  black,  how  to  intensify,  284. 
coloured,  286,  287. 
requires  a  hard  roller,  267. 
for  cylinder  presses,  267,  268. 
for  fine  work,  indispensable  quali- 
ties of,  275,  276. 
how  to  prevent  setting  off,  279. 
how   to   remove   surplus  from  the 

roller,  262. 
how  to  produce  amber,  288. 
blue,  287,  288. 
brown,  288. 
fire-proof,  314. 
green,  288. 
hlac,  288. 
pink.  288. 
purple,  288. 
red,  286-288. 
scarlet,  288. 
vermilion,  288. 
to  mark  tin  or  zinc,  315. 
driers,  how  to  make,  315,  316. 
Ink-fountain,  how  to  manage,  268. 

patent,  illustrated.  310. 
Ink-stone  and  muUer,  illustrated,  285. 
Interleaving  necessary  in  fine  presswork, 

279. 
Interrogation,  sign  of,  63. 
Iron  furniture,  how  made,  310. 
Ironical  rules  for  compositors,  136,  137. 

for  beginners  in  business,  139,  140. 
Italic  letter,  invention  of,  50. 
■    abuse  of,  51. 

Job  department.  300-310. 

capitals  and  lower-case  should  not 
be  laid  together.  304. 

cases  should  be  labelled  with  the 
type  which  is  in  case.  304. 

how  to  conduct  the  business,  300. 

memorandum  slip  for  record,  301. 

requisites  for.  301-310. 

selection  of  material,  300. 
Job  presses,  American,  unsurpassed,  246. 

varieties  of,  246-248. 


Jobbing  facilities,  300-310. 
Jobs,  making  margin  for,  147. 
Johnson,     Lawrence,     type-founder     in 
Philadelphia,  20. 
William  M.,  invents  a  type-casting 
machine,  22. 
Journeymen,  idle,  18. 
Junius,  Hadrianus,  10. 
Justification,  accurate,  absolutely  essen- 
tial, 131. 

Kerned  letters,  59. 

Kinsley,  Dr.,  invents   a  cylinder  press, 

238. 
Knowledge,  progress  of,  accelerated  by 

steam-presses,  240. 
Konig.  Frederick,  inventor  of  the  cylin- 
der press,  238. 
Koster,  (or  Coster,)  Laurentius,  inventor 
of  printing,  9-14. 
printer  of  block  books,  10. 
used  wooden  and  tin  type,  10. 


Labour-saving  brass  rule,  81. 

plan  of  case  for,  82. 

curvatures.  79. 

quotation  furniture,  77. 

rule,  43,  81. 
Lamp-holder,  309. 
Laying  a  fount  of  type,  direcuons  for,  127. 

pages,  143, 144. 
Lead  cutter,  illustrated,  307. 
Leads,  described.  80. 
Leather  belting,  how  to  soften,  316. 
Lenox,  James,  of  New  York,  collection 

of  Bibles.  11. 
Lepsius,  R.,  hieroglyphic  types  of,  83. 
Letter  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Letters  0/  Indulgence,  of  1454-5,  "• 
Letters,  accented,  67. 

ascending,  59. 

descending,  59. 

double,  59. 

kerned,  59. 

long,  59. 

numeral,  67. 

short,  59. 

two-line,  76. 
Ley,  directi<ms  for  making,  312. 

not  to  be  used  on  wood-cuts,  283. 
Ley-brush,  how  to  be  made,  265. 
Ley-trough,  described,  264,  265. 
Liberty  press,  illustrated,  247. 
Lifting  pages.  143. 
Lightning  i)ress.  Hoe's,  239-242. 

illustrated,  240. 
Lilac  ink,  how  to  make,  288. 
Lithographic  chalk  and  ink,  28. 

stcme.  27. 

transfer  ink.  how  to  make,  315. 
Lithography,  discovery  of,  27. 

practice  of,  27-31. 
Locking  up  forms,  147,  148. 
Long  letters,  59. 


INDEX. 


379 


Long  Primer,  specimen  of,  54. 
Lord's  Prayer  in  Anglo-Saxon,  51. 
Lower-case  sorts,  59. 

Machine-casting,  22. 
Machine-made  paper,  sizes  of,  298. 
Machine-press  of  Isaac  Adams,  237,  238. 

Frederick,  Konig,  238. 

Applegath  and  Cowper,  238. 

Richard  M.  Hoe,  239-242. 

William  Bullock,  242-244. 

Campbell,  239,  246. 

Cottrell  &  Babcock,  239. 

Walter,  244. 
Mackling,  how  to  remedy,  263. 
Make-up  rule,  steel,  illustrated,  229. 
Making  margin,  145-147. 

for  jobs,  147. 

ready  a  form,  directions  for,  257- 
260. 
on  cylinder  presses,  265-275. 
wood-cuts, directions  for,28o-2B3. 

register,  directions  for,  260. 
Making  up  furniture,  144,  145. 

in  companionship,  229. 

letter  and  furniture  in  companion- 
ships, 230. 
Mamial  de   Adiiltos,   one   of   the   first 

books  printed  in  America,  16. 
Manuccio,  Aldo,  61. 
Mappa.   Adam    G.,   one    of   the    early 

American  type-founders,  19. 
Margin,  how  to  make,  145-147. 

on  cylinder  presses,  268. 
Masoretic  points,  106. 
Mathematical  signs,  71,  72. 
Matrices,  copper,  40. 

electrotyped,  23. 
Matrix,  illustrated,  40. 
Mazarin  Bibles,  11. 
Measure  of  stick,  how  to  make  by  ems, 

129. 
Mecom,  Benjamin,  24. 
Medium  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Melting-kettle,  description  of,  252. 
Metal  rules,  75. 
Metric  system,  336,  337. 
Minerva  cutting  machine,  illustrated,  309. 
Minion  type,  specimen  of,  54. 
Mitering  machine,  illustrated,  307. 
Mittel,  German  name  for  English  type,  53. 
Modern  conveniences,  120. 
Mucilage,  directions  for  making,  312,  313. 
Mud  process  in  stereotyping,  26. 
Music,  comparative  table  of  bodies,  115. 

directions  for  composing,  116. 

plan  of  cases  for,  117-iig. 

specimens  of,  114. 

Neui  Hampshire  Gazette,  oldest  living 
paper  of  the  United  States,  17. 

Newspapers,  number  of,  printed  in  the 
United  States  in  1801  and  1810,  20. 

New  types,  how  to  prevent  them  from 
adhering  together,  127. 


AVw  York  Gazette,  first  newspaper  pub- 
lished there,  17. 
Nicks,  position  of,  58. 
Nicholson,    William,    suggester    of   the 

cylinder  press,  238. 
Ninety-sixes,  to  impose  half-sheet,  198. 
Nonpareil  press,  illustrated,  247. 

type,  specimen  of,  54. 
Norse-Runic  alphabet,  87,  88. 
North    Avierkan    and    United    States 
Gazette,  of  Philadelphia,  oldest  daily 
newspaper  in  the  United  States,  17. 
Note  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Notes,  proper  size  of  type  for,  131. 

cut  in,  how  arranged,  132. 
Numeral  letters,  Gothic,  68,  69. 

Greek,  67. 

Roman,  68,  69. 
Numerical  value  of  Greek  letters,  67,  98. 

Hebrew  letters,  104. 

Octavo,  scheme  for  imposing  sheet  of, 
157,  158. 

sheet  of,  the  broad  way,  157,  158. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  159,  160. 

sheet  mixed,  i6i,  162. 

half-sheet,  159. 

two  quarters,  together,  160. 

sheet  of  Hebrew,  161,  162. 

sheet  of,  from  the  centre,  163,  164. 

half-sheet  of,  do.,  163. 

two  quarter-sheets,  do.,  164. 
Oiling  a  press,  292. 
Old   English    letter    used   by   the   early 

printers,  49. 
Old-style  figures,  advantages  of,  70. 
Old  works,  no  license   of  alteration  al- 
lowable in  reprinting,  202. 
One  hundred  and  twenty-eights,  scheme 

for  imposing  half-sheet  of,  199. 
Ornaments,   ancient,   exquisite   and   cu- 
rious, 15,  i6. 
Orthography,  hints  on,  318-332. 

uniformity  in,  202. 
Overlaying  on  cylinder  presses,  272,  273. 

on  hand-presses,  277. 
Ovemmning,  proper  method  of,  210. 
Overseer,  duties  of,  218-232. 
Over-sheets,  rules  for  giving  out,  294. 

Packet  note  paper,  size  of,  298. 

post  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Pages,  how  to  tie  up,  142,  143. 

how  to  lift,  143. 

how  to  lay,  143. 
Palmaert,  Lambert,  printed  at  Valencia, 

1479.  14- 
Paper-bank,  how  to  be  placed,  259. 
Paper  for  jobs,  rule  for  giving  out,  294. 

cutters,  309. 

instructions  for  wetting,  255-257. 

qualities  of  good,  276. 

quantity  required  for  a  book,  299. 

sizes  of,  298. 

suitable  for  fine  printing,  257. 


38o 


INDEX. 


Papier-mache  moulds,  242. 

Paragon  type,  so  called  by  printers  in  all 

countries,  52. 
Paragraph  mark,  how  used,  66. 
Paragraphs,    authors'     irregularities     in 
making,  132,  133. 
rule  for  indenting,  132. 
Parchment  tympans,  254. 
Parenthesis,  use  of,  65,  66. 
Pasteboard  tympan  for  a  cylinder  press, 

advantages  of,  265. 
Paste,  directions  for  making,  312. 
Pearl  type,  specimen  of,  54. 
Peerless  press,  illustrated,  248. 
Penn,    William,    promotes    printing    in 

Pennsylvania,  17. 
Perforating  machine  for  round  holes,  il- 
lustrated, 308. 
rule,  illustrated,  308. 
Perforator,  Ames's  Patent,  308. 
Period,  use  of,  62. 
Petit   and    Jungfer,   German    names    of 

Brevier,  54. 
Petit    Romain,   French   name  of    Long 

Primer,  54. 
Petri  Hispani  Tractatilms  Logicis,  one 

of  the  first  printed  books,  10. 
Phoenician  alphabetic  system,  83. 
Photo-engraving,  35-38. 
Phrases,  foreign,  translated,  357-372. 
Pica,  specimen  of,  53. 

the  standard  type,  52. 
Picks  in  types,  how  to  remove,  262. 

in   wood-cuts,   how  to    take    out, 
281. 
Pietrison,  Thomas,  the  inventor  of  print- 
ers' ink,  10. 
Pink  ink,  how  to  produce,  288. 
Planetarj'  signs,  73,  74. 
Plate  paper,  directions  for  wetting,  256. 
Plumbago,  used  in  electrotyping,  27,  45. 
Point  system  of  type  bodies,  55,  56. 
Points,  how  to  arrange,  258. 
Polyglot  founders,  18. 
Position  of  nicks,  58. 

in  composing,  127. 
Prefaces,  rules  concerning,  135. 
Press-book,  form  of.  222. 
Press  arbitrarily  restricted,  235. 

history  of  invention  of,  235-248. 
old  common,  235. 
to     print     and     number    railroad 
tickets  and  coupons,  246. 
Presses — see  machine-presses. 

how  to  oil,  292. 
Pressing  sheets,  mode  of,  296,  297. 
Pressmen  should  examine  every  sheet  as 
printed,  263. 
rules  and  remedies  for,  262-264. 
should    study    fine    specimens    of 
printing,  277. 
Presswork,  requisites  for  producing  fine, 

275-279. 
Prima,  203. 
Printed  sheets,  how  treated.  295-297 


Printers,  how  not  to  succeed  in  business, 
139,  140. 

ironical  rules  for,  136,  137. 
Printer's  knife,  illustrated,  210,  211. 
Printing,  discovery  of,  9-14. 

extension  of,  13. 

in  bronzes,  284,  285. 

in  colours,  285-288. 

in  gold,  directions  for,  284. 

introduced  into  America,  16. 

manner  of  discovery',  9-12. 
Printing-machine,    type-revolving,    240- 

242. 
Printing-offices,  rules  to  be  observed  in, 

233.  234- 
Printing-press,  amateur,  248. 

Bullock,  242-244. 

Campbell,  239,  246. 

Cottrell  &  Babcock,  239. 

Degener,  246,  247. 

Earl  Stanhope's,  236. 

earliest,  235. 

first  set  up  in  North  America,  16. 

Frederick  Konig's,  238. 

Gaily,  246. 

George  Clymer's,  236. 

George  P.  Gordon's,  246,  247. 

invention  of  the,  235-248. 

Isaac  Adams's,  237. 

Job,  246-248. 

Peter  Smith's,  237. 

Railroad-ticket,  246. 

Ramage's,  236. 

Richard  M.  Hoe's,  239-242. 

Ruggles,  246. 

Samuel  Rust's,  237. 

Walter,  244. 

Wells,  246. 

Willem  Jansen  Blaeu's,  235. 
Proof-marks,  explanation  of,  214,  215. 

illustration  of,  212,  213. 
Proof-press,  illustrated,  343. 
Proof-reader,    author's     obligations     to, 
201. 

duties  of  a,  202,  207. 

friendly  offices  of,  201. 

qualifications  of,  200-206. 

should  be  a  compositor,  200. 
Proof-readers,  caprices  of,  207. 
Proof-sheets,  alterations  in,  justly  charge- 
able, 204,  205,  211. 

detained  by  authors,  205. 

errors  in  correcting,  203,  204. 

method  of  reading,  202.  203. 

plan  for  keeping  account  of,  203. 

remarks  concerning,  202. 

should  be  read  by  two  readers,  204. 
Proofs  of  engravings,  now  to  take,  283. 
Proper  names  should  be  plainly  written, 

211. 
Prussian  blue  ink.  287. 
Publishers'  interference  wiih  the  printers* 

province,  134. 
Pulling,  directions  for,  260-262,  279. 
Punch,  illustrated,  40. 


INDEX. 


381 


Punctuality  indispensable  in  an  appren- 
tice, 123. 
Punctuation,   amending    of,    should    be 
confined  to  one  reader,  204. 
and    orthography   to    be    uniform 

throughout  a  book,  202. 
points     of    later    invention     than 

printing,  61. 
variations  in  use  of,  61. 
whims  of  authors,  61. 
Wilson's  Treatise  on,  62,  65. 

Quadrates,    circular,    illustrated,    and 
described,  78,  79. 

comer,  illustrated,  306. 

directions  for  composing,  78,  79. 

hollow,  illustrated,  77. 
Quantity  of  paper  required  to  print  a  book 

of  one  thousand  copies,  299. 
Quarto,  scheme  for  imposing,  153,  154. 

the  broad  way  for  music,  153,  154. 

two  half-sheets,  together,  155,  156. 

half-sheet,  the  broad  way,  155, 156. 
Quires,  cassie,  of  what  made  up,  294. 
Quitting   work,  precautions   to   be   used 

by  the  pressmen  in,  264. 
Quoins,  proper  form  of,  147,  148. 

how  to  unlock,  148. 

various  patents,  306, 
Quotation  furniture,  illustrated,  77. 

marks,  62. 
Quotations,  broad  and  narrow,  76, 

Railroad  -  ticket    printing  -  machine, 

246. 
Ramage,  Adam,  236. 
Reading-boy,  202. 
Receipts,  various,  311-317. 
Red  ink,  how  to  make,  286,  288. 
References,  use  of,  66,  67. 
Register,  how  to  make,  260. 
Regulations  for  a  printing-office,  233,  234. 
Reprints  from  standard  authors   not   to 

vary  from  the  original,  202. 
Revise,  206. 

Revise  sheet  necessary,  260. 
Riding,  how  to  prevent,  286. 
Rittenhoiise,   William,   the    first    paper- 
maker  in  America,  17. 
Roller-boy.  262. 
Roller-handle,  how  to  lie  when  used,  251. 

how  to  check,  251. 
Roller,  hard,  best  for  fine  work,  267. 

soft,  required  for  posters  and  old 
type,  267. 
Roller-mould,  directions  for  using,  252. 
Roller-stand,  how  to  set  up,  250,  251. 

illustrated,  251. 
Rollers,   composition,   how   made,   252- 
254-  311,  312. 

for  hand-presses,  how  to  keep,  278. 

hand-press,  252. 

precautions  in  using,  252. 

to  be  adapted  to  style  of  work,  267. 

when  in  working  order,  253. 


Roman  letter,  invention  of,  49. 

deserving  general  adoption,  50. 
Ronaldson,  James,  type-founder  in  Phila- 
delphia, 19. 
Richard,  type-founder  in  Philadel- 
phia, 20. 
Rosetta  stone,  discovery  of,  83, 
Royal  and  half  paper,  size  of,  298, 
Royal  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Ruggles's  job  presses,  246, 

card  cutter,  illustrated,  309. 
Rule,  brass,  80. 

labour-saving,  illustrated,  81. 
plan  of  case  for,  82. 
Rules  and  remedies  for  pressmen,  262- 
264. 
for  beginners  in  business,  ironical, 

139,  140. 
for  compositors,  ironical,  136,  137. 
for  perforating,  illustrated,  308. 
Runes,  earliest  alphabets  of  the  Teutons 

and  Goths,  85. 
Runic  alphabets,  86-90. 

inscription  on  Bewcastle  cross,  89. 
Russian  alphabet,  112,  113. 
Rust,  Samuel,  inventor  of  the  Washing- 
ton press,  237, 

Saur  (or  Sower),  Christopher,  first  Ame- 
rican type-founder,  19. 
issues  the  Geriiianto'wn  Chronicle 

in  1739,  19. 
prints  the  first  quarto  Bible,  19. 
Scarlet  ink.  how  to  make,  288. 
Schoeffer,  Peter,  inventor  of  type-found- 
ing, 13,  14. 
Semicolon,   invented    by  Aldo    Manuc- 
cio,  61. 
use  of,  62. 
Senefelder,    Alois,    discoverer    of   litho- 
graphy. 27. 
Setting  fly  on  a  cylinder  press,  274. 

off,  how  to  prevent  ink  from,  279. 
tapes,  process  of,  274, 
up  a  Washington  press,  250. 
up  a  roller-stand,  250,  251. 
Seventy-twos,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of.  197. 
Shades  of  ink,  how  to  produce,  288. 
Sheets,  counting  out  and  putting  away, 
294. 
filling  in  and  pressing,  296. 
how  to  take  down  from  the  poles, 

296. 
names  of,  149. 
Shooting-sticks,  illustrated,  307. 
Short  letters,  59. 

numbers  of  sheets,  allowance  for, 

294. 
pages,  how  to  back,  133. 
Side  notes,  how  arranged,  131,  132. 
Signatures,  table  of,  216,  217. 

inventor  of,  16. 
Signaturing,  remarks  concerning,  135. 
Signs,  astronomical,  73,  74. 


382 


INDEX. 


Signs,  commercial,  71. 

mathematical,  71,  73. 

medical,  74,  75. 
Silk  tympan-covers,  254. 
Silvering  solution,  how  to  make,  316. 
Sitting  at  work  improper,  127. 
Sixteens,  scheme  for  imposing  half-sheet 
of,  174. 

sheet  of,  175. 
Sixty-fours,  scheme   for  imposing  quar- 
ter-sheet of,  195. 

scheme  for  imposing  quarter-sheet 
of,  with  two  signatures,  194. 

quarter  sheet  of,  mixed,  195. 

half-sheet  of,  196. 
Slotted  brass  corners,  illustrated,  44. 
Slovenly  copy,  censurable,  223. 
.Slurring,  how  to  prevent,  263,  278. 
Small  capital  letters,  58,  60,  61. 

Pica,  specimen  of,  54. 
Smith,    George     Frederick,    founder    in 
Philadelphia,  20. 

Matthew,  press-maker,  239. 

Peter,   inventor  of  a   hand-press, 

237- 
Sorts,  upper  and  lower  case,  59. 
Sounds  of  German  letters,  94. 

Greek  letters,  98. 

Hebrew  letters,  104. 
Sower — see  Saur. 

Samuel    &    Co.,   early   American 
type-founders,  20. 
Space-rules,  metal,  8i. 
Spaces,  described,  75. 

various   sizes   of,   should   be   kept 
separate,  128. 
Spacing,  remarks  on,  130,  131. 
Sficculiiin    Huiitante    Salvationis ,    the 

first  printed  book,  11. 
Spelling,  rules  for,  318-332. 
Spiegal  enser  Behoudenisse ,  one  of  the 

first  printed  books,  10. 
Spring  bearers,  259. 

Springing,  to  prevent  wood-cuts  from,  280. 
Sc|uare  cross,  where  used,  66. 
Standard  for  height  of  type,  57,  58. 

metal  furniture,  77. 
Standing  press,  how  to  fill,  296,  297. 

improved,  illustrated,  297. 
Stanhope,  f^arl,  press  invented  by,  236. 
Star  chamber,  regulations  of,  concerning 

English  founders,  18. 
St.  Augustin,  French  and  Dutch   name 

for  English  type,  53. 
Stereotype  plates,  English  imperfections 
of,  18. 

how  to  underlay,  272. 

block,  illustrated,  44. 
Stereotyping,  invention  of,  24. 

mode  of,  24-26,  46. 

mud  process,  26. 
Stop  cylinder  press,  illustrated,  238. 

well  adapted  for  fine  printing,  239. 
Slower,  extract  from,  205,  206. 
Superiors,  67. 


Super-royal  paper,  size  of,  298. 
Syllables,  abbreviated,  15. 

how  to  divide,  64,  65. 
Symbols,  absurd,  74. 


Table  of  paper  required  for  a  book,  299. 

proof-marks,  212. 

signatures,  216,  217. 
Takes  of  copy  should  be  small,  221. 
Taking  copy  in  companionships,  228,  229. 
Taking  down  sheets  when  dry,  296. 
Tapes,  how  to  set,  274. 
Technical  terms  explained.  338-343. 

names   should   be  legibly  written, 
211. 
Tertia,  German  name  of  Great  Primer,  53. 
Theinhardt,    Ferdinand,   Prussian   type- 
founder, 84. 
Thirty-sixes,  scheme   for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of.  190. 

half-sheet  of,  without  cutting,  190. 

the  same,  with  two  signatures,  191. 
Thirty-twos,  scheme   for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  186. 

sheet  of,  187,  188. 

sheet  of,  with  four  signatures,  187, 
188. 

half-sheet,  two  signatures,  189. 

half-sheet  of,  mixed,  189. 
Thomas.  Isaiah,  14. 
Tilloch,  Dr.  Alexander,  24. 
Tinted  paper,  coloured  ink  on,  291. 
Tints,  neutral.  291. 

Title-deeds,  scheme  for  imposing,  150. 
Title-pages,  hints  for  setting,  134. 

remarks  on,  134. 
Token-sheet,  purpose  of,  256. 
Tokens  explained,  294. 
Tools  for  wood  engraving,  34. 
Trade-marks,  how  to  secure  patents,  335. 
Transposing  pages,  directions  for,  207. 

pages  in  companionships,  232. 
Turkey  bo.xwood,  best  for  engraving,  34. 
Turning  a  heap,  directions  for,  261,  262. 
Turpentine,  spirits  of,  best  for  cleansing 

wood-cuts,  283. 
Tweezers,  illustrated,  210. 
Twenties,  scheme  for  imposing  half-sheet 
of,  with  two  signatures,  181. 

sheet  of,  182. 
Twenty-fours,  scheme  for  imposing  half- 
sheet  of,  183. 

sheet  of,  183,  184. 

half-sheet,  the  sixteens  way,  1S4. 

half-sheet  of,  long,  185. 

half-sheet  of,  without  cutting,  186. 
Two-line  letters,  how  used,  76. 
Tying  up  p.iges.  142,  143. 
Tympan  suitable  for  cylinder  press,  265. 
Tympans,  how  to  cover,  254. 
Type  bodies,  point  system  of,  55,  56. 
Type-casting  machine,  description  of,  42. 

illustrated,  41. 

origin  of,  22. 


IXDEX. 


383 


Type-casting     machine,     perfected     by 

David  Bruce,  Jr..  22,  23. 
Type-founding  a  distinct   calling  in   the 
seventeenth  centurj-,  18. 

early,  in  New  York,  ig. 

early,  in  Philadelphia,  19. 

in  America,  19. 

in  Europe,  18. 
Type-foundries  in  the  United  States,  23. 
Type-foundry,   first   American,  at   Ger- 
mantown.  Pennsylvania,  ig. 

walk  over  a,  39-48. 
Type,  how  to  lay  a  fount  of,  127. 
Type-measure,  227. 
Type-metal,  40. 
Type-revolving  printing  machine.  Hoe's, 

illustrated,  240. 
Types,  bill  of,  57. 

Black  or  Old  English  letter,  4g,  51. 

directions  for  choosing,  50. 

fount  of,  58. 

gradation  of.  55. 

how  to  prevent  themfrom  adhering, 
127. 

Italic,  invention  of,  50. 

names  and  sizes  of,  52-54. 

prices  of,  since  1801,  25. 

process  of  manufacturing,  3g-43. 

Roman,  invention  of,  4g. 

specimens  of.  53,  54. 
Typographic  Adz'crtiscr.  20. 
Typographical  errors,  a  blemish.  200. 

peculiarities,  ancient,  17,  18. 

Underlaying    old     stereotype     plates, 

282. 
Underlays,    when    proper    on     cylinder 

presses,  270-272. 
Uniformity  in  colors,  how  to  secure,  263. 

in  spacing  essential,  130. 
Universal  press,  illustrated,  248. 
Unlocking  forms,  precautions  in,  208. 
Upper-case  sorts,  59. 

Van  der  Mey's  method  of  stereotyping, 

24. 
Variations  from  copy  chargeable,  211. 
Varnish  for  printing  ink,  how  to  make, 
314- 
the   common   menstruum   for  col- 
ours, 286. 


Varnish,  prevents  enamel  from  peeling, 
^284. 

\  ignettes,  how  to  prepare  on  the  press, 
281. 


Walter  perfecting  press,  244. 
Warehouse  book,  form  of,  2g3. 

department,  2g3-2g8. 
Warehouseman,  duties  of,  293. 
Warping  of  a  cut,  how  to  cure,  282. 

how  to  prevent,  282. 
Washing  forms,  directions  for,  264,  265. 
Washington  press,  how  to  set  up,  250. 

invented  by  Samuel  Rust,  illustra- 
ted. 237. 
Waterproof  paper,  how  to  make,  317. 
Watts,  John,  21. 
Web  perfecting  presses.  242-246. 
Wells's  job  presses.  246. 
Wet  paper,  how  to    be    protected   over- 
night, 264. 
Wetting  paper,  directions  for,  255-257. 

drawing  and  plate  paper,  256. 

rules  for  giving  out  paper  for,  2g4, 
295- 
Wetting-trough .  how  to  be  made,  255. 
White,  Elihu,  type-founder  in  New  York, 

21,  22. 
White  pages,  how  to  be  treated,  259. 
Wood-cuts,  how  to  prepare  on  the  press, 
280-283. 

how  to  wash,  283. 

how  to  take  proof  of,  283. 
Wood  engraving,  tools  for.  34. 

type,  how  to  be  cared  for,  2g2. 
Woollen   blankets,   needless  when    new 

type  is  used,  257,  266. 
W^ords  and  phrases,  foreign,  357-372. 
Working  in  pocket  unsatisfactory,  227. 
Works,  how  to  manage  hurried,  226. 
Wrinkles  in  paper,  how  to  remove,  263. 
Writing  inks,  coloured,  how  to  make,  314. 

Yellow  ink,  how  to  produce,  287,  288. 

Zarotti,  Antonio,  the  inventor  of  sig- 
natures, 16. 

Zell,  Ulrich,  printer  of  the  Chronicle 
of  Cologit'-  9. 

Zodiacal  signs,  73. 


33 


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ET    FACTA    EST    LUX. 


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ESTABLISHED,  lyqb. 


AdacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Formdry, 
Letter  Founders, 

JVos.  606-61^  Sansoni  Street,  Phitadelphia. 


This  establishment,  the  oldest  in  America,  has  kept  even  pace  with  all 
the  improvements  in  type-founding ;  and  its  produilions  at  the  present 
day,  in  beauty  of  style,  accuracy  of  standing,  and  durability  of  ?naferial, 
are  all  that  skill,  ingenuity,  and  long  experience  have  been  able  to  effe£i. 
Neither  pains  nor  expense  7vill  he  withheld  to  maintain  its  reputation. 


Book  and  Newspaper  Faces. 

Some  are  of  light  and  dainty  face,  others  of  medium,  and  others 
again  of  broad  and  massive  charadter.  The  Lightface  Series  ; 
the  French-Face  Series  ;  the  celebrated  Scotch-Face  Series, 
introduced  by  us  many  years  ago  ;  the  BOOK  Series  ;  the  Large- 
Face  Series;  the  Classic  Series;  the  News  Series;  the 
Broadface  Series;  the  Modern  Series;  the  Original  Old 
Style  Series  ;  the  Bradford  Series  ;  the  Binny  Series  ;  the 
RONALDSON  Series  ;  the  MacKellar  Series,  and  all  others  intro- 
duced by  us,  are  kept  constantly  on  hand,  in  large  and  small  founts. 

German  Book  and  Newspaper  Faces, 

Of  various  styles,  also  kept  on  hand  or  furnished  to  order. 

Elegant  Scripts  and  other  Note  and  Circular  Types, 
In  great  variety  of  styles,  for  all  kinds  of  Notes,  Blanks,  and  Circular 
Printing. 

Greek,  Hebrew  and  Music  Type. 

Music  Type  without  an  equal  m  America,  or  a  superior  in  the 
world.  The  sizes  are  Excelsior,  or  half-Nonpareil,  Diamond,  Agate, 
and  Nonpareil.     Greek  and  HEBREW  of  all  pradlical  sizes. 

Fancy  and  Ornamental  Type, 

Unrivalled  for  beauty,  originality,  e.xtent,  and  variety.  In  this  depart- 
ment, native  and  foreign  genius  and  inventive  skill  are  alike  laid 
under  contribution,  and  no  other  foundry  in  the  world  can  furnish 
so  complete  and  beautiful  an  assortment. 

Borders,  Flourishes,  Corners  and  Ornaments, 

For  finest  artistic  and  ornamental  printing,  to  meet  every  require- 
ment of  the  printer. 


Cuts  and  Ornaments, 

For  general  use,  from  more  than  three  thousand  subje(5ls,  many  of 
them  very  fine. 

Office  Furnishings. 

Cabinets  of  various  kinds  and  prices.  Stands,  double  or  single, 
or  made  in  different  styles  to  order,  of  walnut  or  poplar.  Cases  of 
all  kinds.  Imposing  Stones  of  regular  sizes  constantly  on  hand; 
special  sizes  and  styles  got  up  to  order.  Galleys  of  all  kinds,  either 
wood  or  brass.  Stereotype  Blocks,  with  or  without  rule  borders. 
Chases  of  wrought  or  cast  iron.  Composing-Sticks  of  all  kinds, 
large  and  small.  RACKS  for  cases.  INK  Stones.  Card,  Paper, 
Lead  and  Rule  Cutters.  Labour-Saving  Wood  Rule.  Labour- 
Saving  Wood  Furniture.  Labour-Saving  Curvatures.  Furniture, 
Quoins,  Mallets;  Shooting-Sticks  of  brass,  iron  or  dogwood; 
Planers,  Bodkins,  Ley  and  Washing  Brushes,  &c. 

Eureka  Cabinets. 

Size  to  fit  in  space  at  left  of  double  stand.  Stained  in  imitation  of 
cherry. 

Sort-Case  Cabinet. — Contains  eight  drawers,  each  divided  into 
sixteen  compartments.  It  will  be  found  useful  as  a  receptacle 
for  quads,  leaders  or  sorts. 

Handy  Cabinet. — Contains  five  drawers,  arranged  to  hold  twenty 
different  sizes  of  spaces  and  quads,  and  eight  blank  drawers, 
for  cuts  or  large  type. 

Galley  Cabinet. — No.  i,  for  twenty-four  single  and  fourteen 
double  column  galleys.  No.  2,  for  forty-eight  single  galleys. 
No.  3,  for  thirty-four  double  galleys. 

Ink  Cabinet. — Contains  four  compartments  for  ink,  &c.,  and 
marble  slab  18x20  inches  on  top,  for  mixing  inks. 

Chase  Cabinet. — Arranged  to  contain  one-eighth,  one-quarter, 
and  one-half  medium  chases.     With  or  without  ink  stone. 

Combination  Cabinet.— No.  i,  contains  four  blank  drawers,  three 
sort-case  drawers,  and  four  quad  drawers.  No.  2,  contains 
four  sort-case  drawers  and  six  quad  drawers. 

Quad  Cabinet. — Contains  twelve  drawers,  each  divided  into  two 
compartments,  suitable  for  quads  or  leaders. 

Labour-saving  Leads  and  Slugs. 

Two  and  three  point  (six  and  four-to-Pica)  LEADS,  from  48  to  300 
points  (4  to  25  ems  Pica)  in  length;  put  up  in  any  useful  quantity. 
Six  and  twelve  point  ( Nonpareil  and  Pica)  Slugs,  cut  to  same  lengths. 
Cases  arranged  specially  for  Labour-Saving  Leads  and  Slugs. 


Labour-saving  Quotation  Furniture. 

Accurately  cast,  and  equally  valuable  either  as  furniture  or  as  quota- 
tions. The  pieces  range  from  48  to  240  points  in  length,  and  from 
24  to  48  points  in  width,  quadrate  height,  with  suitable  spaces. 

Reversible  Metal  Furniture, 

For  imposition  of  forms  and  general  blank-work.  Cast  to  our 
standard  12  point  body. 

Labour-Saving  Rule, 

(Matching  our  standard  type  bodies,)  Single,  Double,  Parallel,  Dot- 
ted, and  Triple  faces.  Cut  accurately  of  various  lengths.  It  will  be 
found  of  vast  utility  in  tabular  and  job  work,  rendering  the  use  of 
shears  and  file  entirely  unnecessary.  Cases  furnished  specially 
adapted  to  it. 

Brass  Circles  and  Ovals, 

Of  various  sizes  and  faces,  for  label  and  stamp  borders. 

Slotted  Brass  Corners, 

Of  beautiful  original  patterns,  matching  our  brass  rules. 

Hollow  Quadrates, 

For  the  easy  formation  of  Circles,  Ellipses,  &c.,  made  in  sizes  to  suit 
our  Brass  Circles  and  Ovals,  from  Xos.  i  to  13. 

Corner  Quadrates, 

On  12  point  and  6  point  Metal  and  2  point  Brass  bodies. 

Printing  Presses  and  Ink. 

Presses  of  the  most  celebrated  makers  in  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  all  varieties  and  colours  of  American  and  Foreign  PRINTING  INKS, 
Sizes,  Bronzes,  Varnishes,  &c.  at  manufacturers'  prices. 

Roller  Composition. 

Glue  for  Rollers,  and  the  various  Patent  Compositions,  furnished  to 
order  at  manufacturers'  prices. 

Electrotyping 

Of  Almanacs,  Jobs,  Wood-Cuts,  Labels,  Binders'  Stamps,  &c. 

Wood  Engraving. 

Cuts  designed  and  engraved  to  order  in  the  finest  style  of  art. 

Outfits  for  Printing  Offices. 

Estimates  given  in  detail  (with  the  cost)  of  all  the  materials  required 
for  either  Newspaper  or  Job  Offices. 

MacKellar.  Smiths  s^ Jordan  Foundry, 

Nos.  606-614  Sansom  Street, 

PhiladeIJ>hia. 


PRINTERS'  TEXT-BOOKS. 


A  Manual  of  Typography,  containing  Praftical   Dire(5lions  for  Managing 
all   Departments  of  a  Printing  Office,  as  well  as  Complete  Instructions  for 


Apprentices.      Eighteenth  Edition. 
By  mail,  ;j2.io. 

"  Most  successful  of  the  books  of  this  class 
known  to  me." — Correspondctil  of  the  Archi-v 
fur  Buchdruckerkunst,  Leipzig. 

"Any  intelligent  person  will  find  this  work 
a  serviceable  companion." — Journal  of  Com- 
merce, Chicago. 

"  A  neat  volume,  beautifully  printed." — 
VImprimerie.  Paris. 

"  The  most  complete  work  on  the  subject." — 
Daily  Free  Press,  Atchison,  Kansas. 


Revised  and  Enlarged.      Price,  $2.00. 


"A  great  amount  of  curious  information, 
historical  and  illustrative." — livening  Post, 
New  York. 

"  The  result  of  intelligent  research  and  con- 
siderable personal  experience." — The  Nation, 
New  York. 

"  This  is  taken  as  the  standard  American 
treatise  on  pratftical  printing,  and  is  eminently 
worthy  the  high  reputation  it  has  attained." — 
Sprinkler's  History  and  Mystery  of  Printing. 


Wilson's  Punctuation. 

A  Treatise  on  Puncfluation,  designed  for  Printers,  Letter-Writers,  Authors, 
and  Correctors  of  the  Press.     Price,  $i.$o.     By  mail,  $1.60. 

"  This  is  a  useful  and  valuable  work  on  Eng- 
lish Puni5tuation,  and  every  one  can  read  it  with 
profit  and  pleasure." — Boston  Daily  Atlas. 

'*  It  contains  all  the  necessary  dire(5tioiis  for 
self-taught  writers  and  editors." — American 
lyhig  Review. 


"  It  is  an  excellent  work  for  schools  and 
academies,  and  for  those  who  would  become 
&e\(-ls.u%ht.."— Christian  Freeman. 

'•  We  have  never  before  met  with  any  work 
on  Pumftnation  which  gave  us  so  great  satisfac- 
tion as  this."— rA«  Student. 


American  Encyclopaedia  of  Printing. 

Comprising  (with  plates)  550  imperial  octavo  pages,  giving  more  than  si.xtecn 
hundred  definitions,  descriptions,  and  articles  relating  to  the  History,  Imple- 
ments, Processes,  Produdls,  and  auxiliary  Arts  of  Printing ;  splendidly 
Illustrated  by  more  than  two  hundred  Chromo-Lithographs,  Lithographs, 
Wood  Engravings,  Imitations  of  Water-Marks,  Embossed  and  Ruled  Pages, 
etc.     Edited  by  J.  Luther  Ringwalt.     Price,  g6.oo. 


Typographic  Advertiser. 

Elegantly  printed,  and  furnished  free  to  all  Printing  Offices.    Needful  to  those 
who  desire  to  keep  up  with  the  improvements  in  Typography. 


"'  This  grand  journal,  the  oldest  in  the  country, 
maintains  its  pfaceinthe  van  against  all  comers. 
Its  typographic  appearance  is  unequalled  in  the 
worltl  of  printing,  and  a  careful  study  of  its 
peerless  specimen  pages  will  do  m^ire  to  ad- 
vance the  beautiful  in  job  composition  and 
prcsswork  than  all  the  tawdry  imitations  of  I 


Money  spent  for  good  books  is  well  invested ;  and  in  this  day  of  typographical 
progress,  no  adlive-minded  printer  can  really  afford  not  to  have  the  above  works  in 
his  office  library.     Address  all  orders  to 


MacKellar,  Smiths 


lithography,  and  badly  designed  and  worse         -^ 
executetl  rule  work  that  has  been  thrust  upon  a    *\ 
suffering    art    from    Caxton    to    to-day.      Its 
editorial  management  is  as  good  as  its  typo- 
graphy is  handsome  and  artistic." — Springer's       ' 
History  and  Mystery  of  Printing.  c 

y' Jordan  Fo  undr  y,    n  ^ 

Nos.  606-614  Stinsom  Street, 

Philadelphia. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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This  book  Is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


OCT  2  3 198B 


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